BX 955
.P35
1891 V
40 1
Pastor
, Ludwig,
1854-1928
The history
of
the
popes ,
from
the close
of
the
HISTORY OF THE POPES
VOL. XL.
o
I MAR 11 Ibaij ^
THE ^^^ #
HISTORY OF THE POPES
FROM THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES
DRAWN FROM THE SECRET ARCHIVES OF THE VATICAN AND OTHER
ORIGINAL SOURCES
FROM THE GERMAN OF THE LATE
LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON PASTOR
TRANSLATED BY
E. F. PEELER
VOLUME XL
PIUS VI. (1775-1799)
LONDON
ROUTLEDGE and KEGAN PAUL. LTD.
BROADWAY HOUSE : 68-74 CARTER LANE, E.G.
1953
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY
STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, LTD., HERTFORD
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL.
PIUS VI., 1775-1799
PAGES
Hontheim's Recantation — The Erection of a Nuncia-
ture in Munich ...... 1-42
The Congress of Ems and its Aftermath — Disturb-
ances in the Austrian Netherlands — Death of
. Joseph II. — His Successors' Attitude towards the
Church ....... 43-86
The Church in France at the End of the Ancien Rdgime
— The Outbreak of the Revolution — The Abolition
of Ecclesiastical Privileges .... 87-114
The Ecclesiastical Legislation of the French National
Assembly in 1789 and 1790 — The Secularization
of Church Property and the Suppression of the
Religious Houses — ^The Civil Constitution of the
Clergy — The Attitudes adopted by Louis XVI.,
Pius VI., and the French Hierarchy . . . 1 15-162
The Fate of the non-juring Clergy in France— The
Reign of Terror ...... 163-212
The Penetration of Revolutionary Ideas and Move-
ments into the States of the Church . . . 213-260
The French Clergy in Exile — Disestablishment of the
Church in France ...... 261-288
Bonaparte and the French in the Papal States — The
Establishment of the Roman Republic and the
Expulsion of the Pope ..... 289-347
The Renewal of the Persecution of the Clergy in
France — Pius VI. 's Last Journey and his Death
in Exile 348-397
Index of Names ....... 399-406
Contents of Mann's Lives of the Popes and Pastor's
History of the Popes ..... 407-410
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL.
Pius VL 1775-1799.
CHAPTER I.
HONTHEIM's recantation THE ERECTION OF A
NUNCIATURE IN MUNICH.
A.D. PAGE
1776 Bellisomi tries to turn the Elector of Trier against the
Febronius, and, under the influence of the ex-Jesuit
Beck, the Elector sends to Paris for opinions on the
work ........ 2
1777 Pius VI. insists on Hontheim's formal recantation, but 3
Hontheim, undeterred, publishes his Febronius
abbreviatus ....... 4
Bellisomi 's failure to have the book banned by the
Bishops ........ 5
Isenbiehl's objectionable writings and ... 6
1778 Hontheim's partially favourable opinion on them,
which loses him the Elector's favour. Hontheim
submits to the Elector on this point . . . .8
The Elector demands his submission in respect of the
Febronius as well ...... 9
Hontheim agrees and drafts his recantation, which is 10
Forwarded to Rome . . . . . .11
The recantation described . . . . .14
The Pope's publication of it . . . . .16
1779 Hontheim's pastoral letter, informing his diocese of his
change of mind . . . . . . .18
The printing of the letter prohibited in various States 20
The rumour that his recantation was insincere . . 21
Denied by Hontheim, who twice issues a statement
to this effect ....... 22
1780 His commentary on his recantation . ... 24
1792 Based on Gallican principles, criticized by Gerdil . 26
1 78 1 Hontheim retires from public life . . . .27
1790 His death ........ 28
The ecclesiastical attitude of Karl Theodor of Bavaria 29
His desire for a Bavarian bishopric having been
frustrated ........ 30
1784 He adopts the plan of setting up a nunciature
in Munich. Antici's memorandum ; the Pope's assent 31
Opposition from Mainz, Salzburg .... 33
vii
Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.D. PAGE
1785 Freising, Trier, and Cologne. Rebuffed by Rome . 34
The prelates appeal to the Emperor, who ... 36
In his rescript refuses to recognize the nunciature
tribunals ........ 38
Subsequent steps by Mainz and Salzburg ; incomplete
co-operation of the Suffragans. The Pope stands on
his rights ........ 39
Bavaria insists on having a nunciature ... 40
1786 Zoglio arrives in Munich . ..... 41
Pacca in the archdiocese of Cologne .... 42
CHAPTER II.
THE CONGRESS OF EMS AND ITS AFTERMATH DIS-
TURBANCES IN THE AUSTRIAN NETHERLANDS DEATH
OF JOSEPH II. HIS SUCCESSORS' ATTITUDE TOWARDS
THE CHURCH.
1786 Representatives of the Rhenish Electors and Salzburg
consult together at Ems on .... 44
The restoration of the ' original rights ' of the episco-
pate, the reduction of Papal claims, and . . -45
The reform of ecclesiastical life . . . .46
An unpleasant incident. Letters sent to the Emperor
by the participatory Powers .... 47
The Ems Punctation ...... 48
Joseph II. advises the petitioners to come to an
agreement first with their Suffragans. The reasons
for his guardedness ...... 50
The complete agreement of the Suffragans found to be
unattainable .......
The attempt to put the punctation into practice
resisted by the Pope and the nuncios. Pacca and
the matrimonial dispensation granted to Prince
Hohenlohe-Bartenstein • • • • • 53
The measure taken by the Munich nuncio ... 54
The Ems Punctation a topic of public discussion , 56
In return for the recognition of Dalberg as coadjutor
for Mainz, the Electorate, supported by Prussia,
makes overtures to Rome. Lucchesini's mission . 57
1787 The punctators make another protest, against a
taxation Bull for Bavaria, but . . . -58
1788 Fail to win their case, even with the help of the Diet . 59
The outcome of the Congress of Ems and the nuncia-
ture dispute ....... 60
1789 Pius VI. 's Responsio ...... 61
1781 Joseph IPs reforms in the Netherlands ... 65
52
TABLE OF CONTENTS IX
A.D. PAGE
1786 The general discontent comes to a head, and the
seminarists revolt . . . • . . 66
1789 The nuncio Zondadari, charged with incitement, is
expelled ....•••• ^7
The Pope's dismay ...... 68
The Cardinal of Malines summoned to Vienna . . 69
General indignation among the people ; outbreak
of civil war ....••• 7<5
The Government's conciliatory measures come too
late ; Cardinal Frankenberg takes to flight . 71
The rebels victorious, Joseph II. appeals for help to
the Pope, who addresses a . . . . -72
Brief to the Belgian Bishops . . • • 73
Belgium having already declared its independence,
the Bishops have to decline the Pope's request . 74
1790 Death of Joseph II. The French invasion of the
Netherlands brings the Austrian supremacy to an
end. The election of Leopold 11. , after . . 75
Fruitless talks between the Rhenish Archbishops and
the Papal delegate, Caprara .... 76
The electoral capitulation and ecclesiastical questions 77
Under Leopold II. Josephism is maintained in its
essentials, though the general seminaries are closed 81
1792 The election of Francis II. Maury, the Papal delegate
for Frankfurt .....•• 82
Parleys with the Rhenish Archbishops without effect . 83
The electoral capitulation remains unaltered, no
regard being paid to Maury's protest ... 84
The persistence of Josephism under Francis II. . . 85
CHAPTER III.
THE CHURCH IN FRANCE AT THE END OF THE ANCIEN
REGIME THE OUTBREAK OF THE REVOLUTION THE
ABOLITION OF ECCLESIASTICAL PRIVILEGES.
The splendid exterior presented by the Church : its
prestige, wealth, and prosperity .... 87
The dark side of the picture : bishoprics reserved for
the nobility . . . • • • .91
Some Bishops, nevertheless, worthy of their office . 92
Others neglect the duty of residence and ... 93
Become involved in worldly interests ... 94
The religious Orders : wealth of the abbeys, the com-
mendatory system ...... 97
Lax discipline. The depopulation of the religious
houses ........ 98
X TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.D.
The good condition of the female Orders. The
extreme poverty of the lower clergy, its .
its readiness
99
Consequent envy of the upper clergy, and
to embrace the new ideas of reform . . .100
Clerical members of Freemasonry . . . .102
No leading personalities among the clergy . . .103
Even the clergy infected by anti-Christian literature 106
The body politic : the fundamental evil of State
absolutism, misgovernment in the i8th century . 107
Louis XVI.'s inexperience and ignorance, the
supremacy of the Parliament . . . .108
1789 The rise of the Third Estate, the National Assembly
of 1789, the cleavage between the upper and lower
clergy . . . . . . . .110
The passing of the absolute monarchy, the abolition
of the feudal rights . . . . . .111
With the help of the clergy . . . . .112
Abolition of the tithes and Papal dues . . • 113
Religious liberty . . . . . .114
CHAPTER IV.
THE ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION OF THE FRENCH
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY IN 1 789 AND I790 THE
SECULARIZATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY AND THE
SUPPRESSION OF THE RELIGIOUS HOUSES THE CIVIL
CONSTITUTION OF THE CLERGY THE ATTITUDES
ADOPTED BY LOUIS XVI., PIUS VI., AND THE FRENCH
HIERARCHY.
The preparatory work of secularization done by the
absolutist State and by . . . . • 115
1789 Proposals made in the National Assembly. Church
property placed at the disposal of the nation . .116
Expropriation of the clergy . . . . .120
The communes invited to participate in the partial
sale of Church property . . . . .122
Rejection of Gerle's motion that the Catholic religion
be that of the nation . . . . . .123
Simultaneous suppression of the religious Orders . 126
On being given the option of leaving their houses, the
male Orders hesitate, the females refuse. Little
opposition shown by the people to the suppression
of the religious houses and ..... 127
The purchase of Church property . . . .128
The Church's constitution completely altered by the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy . . . .130
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI
A.D. PAGE
1790 Martineau's proposal and the debate in the National
Assembly ....... 131
The opposition of the Right neither wholehearted nor
persistent . . . . . . . .137
The Civil Constitution passed by the Assembly ; its
significance . . . . . . -139
The king's attitude towards the innovations . .142
His deferment of the royal sanction .... 143
Pius VI. 's attitude . . . . . .144
His long-enduring policy of restraint . . .145
His Brief to Louis XVL, denying the permissibility
of the royal sanction, which . .... 148
The king declares his readiness to give to the National
Assembly . . . . . . .149
Cardinal Bernis instructed to ask the Pope for his
provisional sanction of the Civil Constitution. . 151
Bernis proposes its revision . . . . .152
Yielding to the pressure exerted by the National
Assembly, the king gives his sanction without
waiting for the Papal reply . . . . .153
Even now Pius VI. tries to avoid a rupture . .156
Not anticipating any serious resistance . . . 157
The National Assembly orders the law to be put
into effect. The opposition, however, proves to be
unexpectedly great . . . . . .159
Statement by the Bishops in the National Assembly
forwarded to the Pope . . . . .161
CHAPTER V.
THE FATE OF THE NON-JURING CLERGY IN FRANCE
THE REIGN OF TERROR.
1790 An Oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution demanded 165
167
168
172
175
176
178
183
184
186
187
188
Louis XVI. in a dilemma
Sanctions the oath
Most of the clergy refuse to take it
The French clergy divided into assermenies and
inser mentis .....
The reasons for Pius VI.'s policy of caution
1 791 His Brief against the Civil Constitution .
Another Brief, against the civil oath
The Bishops' attitude towards it
The recall of the nuncio Dugnani
The Abbe Salamon appointed the Pope's confidential
agent in Paris
The Pope's moderation
Xll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.D. PAGE
Anti-clerical outrages . . . . . .189
The rape of Avignon . . . . . .190
The Legislative Assembly's determination to suppress
the non-jurors . . . . . . .191
Fresh laws of proscription . . . . .192
1792 The ruse by which further Papal Briefs were distributed 194
Deportation of the non-juring priests . . . 195
The arrest of the king and the dissolution of the
religious Congregations . . . . .196
The September massacres . . . . .197
The Abbe Salamon's experiences . . . .199
1793 The execution of the king ..... 201
Uprisings and massacres, ' hellish columns ' and
noyades ........ 202
Marriages of clerics ...... 203
A new calendar. Dechristianization . . . 204
Christianity diso\\aied by Gobel and others. Gregoire's
courage ........ 205
The cult of reason and of .... . 206
The Supreme Being. The frenzy of the Tribunal of
the Revolution . . . . . . .210
' An army of martyrs ' . . . . . .211
CHAPTER VI.
THE PENETRATION OF REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS AND
MOVEMENTS INTO THE STATES OF THE CHURCH.
1789 Revolutionary stirrings in the States of the Church
The arrest of Cagliostro ....
Troubles with the French Academy. Precautionary
measures taken by the Papal Government .
Suspicious individuals expelled
1 791 Rupture of diplomatic relations
Revolutionary and anti-revolutionary outbreaks
The rape of Avignon .....
No support from the other Powers ; the Pope's illness
The Venetian ambassador's view of the situation
1792 Further precautions necessary
The Pope's attitude towards the political situation in
Europe .......
Financial distress and defencelessness of the Papal
States .......
The Pope yields to the French power
Arrival in Rome of the spy Bassville, who behaves in a
provocative manner ......
Similar behaviour of the Republicans in Rome and .
213
214
215
217
218
219
220
221
222
224
226
228
229
230
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Xlll
A.D. PAGE
Paris ... 231
Madame Roland's letter to the ' Prince Bishop of
Rome '........ 232
The Pope's restraint ...... 233
Bassville and the Republican coat of arms in Rome . 234
The Republican enthusiasm of the French Academy
of Art 237
1793 Bassville killed in a riot ..... 239
Further outbreaks of popular rage against the French
and the Jews ....... 241
Bassville blamed at first in Paris and then hailed as
a martyr ........ 243
The Republic not yet in a position to revenge his death 244
The execution of Louis XVL gives rise to further
acts of violence against the French and Jews . . 245
The Pope's cautious attitude towards the victories of
the allies ........ 246
His allocution on the death of Louis XVL and . 248
The memorial service in Rome .... 249
Pius VL and the ' little oath ' of liberty and equality 250
The allies' reverses and their effect in Rome . . 251
1794 Hopes set on England ...... 252
Financial distress in the Papal States . . . 254
Their helplessness and empty hopes . . . 256
The discontent of the lower classes vents itself on . 258
Duke Braschi. The conspiracy in Bologna . . 259
CHAPTER Vn.
THE FRENCH CLERGY IN EXILE DISESTABLISHMENT
OF THE CHURCH IN FRANCE.
1791 Two aunts of Louis XVL in Rome, followed by.
A stream of fugitive priests from France and Savoy
The sufferings they endured en route
Bernis' and Maury's hospitality
Organized charity .....
The support given by Urbino
The States of the Church unable to shelter all the
emigres. The self-sacrifice of the Italian Bishops
Lay refugees ......
The records of the relief work, l^migrds in othe
countries .
England
The Netherlands, Germany
Switzerland
Spain ....
261
262
264
265
266
268
270
271
272
276
278
279
XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS
A.D. PAGE
Preparations in France for the separation of the
Church and State . . . . . .281
Reawakening of rehgious life, hindered by internal
obstacles ........ 283
1795 Terrorist attacks on the Church .... 285
CHAPTER VIII.
BONAPARTE AND THE FRENCH IN THE STATES OF THE
CHURCH — THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC AND THE EXPULSION OF THE POPE.
The States of the Church politically isolated and 289
Financially distressed ...... 292
1796 Bonaparte marches against Rome .... 293
Azara's negotiations ...... 295
Armistice of Bologna ...... 297
Political and religious excitement in Rome resulting
from the armistice ...... 298
French commissaries arrive in Rome to execute the
armistice ........ 301
Papal agents in Paris ...... 303
The negotiations broken off . . . . . 305
The Pope's decisiveness. Busca the new Secretary of
State ........ 306
Further negotiations in Florence .... 307
The Pope suspends the execution of the broken
armistice ........ 309
The formation of a citizen army . . . .311
Colli placed in command of the Papal forces . • 3^3
War fever in Rome . . . . . -315
Military disaster . . . . . . .316
1797 The Peace of Tolentino . . . . . .319
Doria Pamfili Secretary of State .... 324
Popular discontent in Rome ..... 326
Talk of another conclave ..... 327
Differences between the Papal Government and
Bonaparte ........ 328
Duphot killed in a riot ...... 330
1798 Rome occupied by Berthier ..... 332
Erection of the Roman Republic. The Pope's attitude 334
336
337
338
340
341
346
347
The Pope expelled from Rome
The treatment of the Cardinals
Resignation of Altieri and Antici
A reign of terror in Rome ....
Art treasures plundered ....
Popular disturbances in the States of the Church
1799 The French driven out of Italy
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XV
CHAPTER IX.
THE RENEWAL OF THE PERSECUTION OF THE CLERGY IN
FRANCE PIUS VI. 'S LAST JOURNEY AND HIS DEATH IN
EXILE.
1797 The coup d'etat of i8th Fructidor .... 349
Reintroduction of the laws of banishment against the
clergy, causing ....... 35^
Further emigration . . . . • • ^5^
Deportation to Cayenne ..... 352
Re, and Oleron. Extension of the laws to Belgium . 353
1798 The Pope's departure from Rome .... 354
Pius VI. in Siena ....... 35^
Memoranda to the Catholic princes, the Emperor in
particular ....... 359
The attention given to the next conclave . . 360
Letters to the Tsar Paul 361
Plans made for moving the Pope to Sardinia . . 363
The Pope in the Certosa of Florence . . .366
Exchange of notes with Vienna .... 367
The Bull concerning the conclave .... 370
1799 Medical testimony regarding the Pope's health . 373
The Pope moved to Parma and . . . .377
Turin 380
The crossing of the Alps to Brian9on . . .381
The stay at Grenoble 382
The Pope arrives at Valence . . . . .384
His removal to Dijon ordered .... 387
Pius VI. dies at Valence ..... 388
His burial 39o
The removal of his body to Rome ; Canova's monu-
ment ........ 393
Epilogue ........ 395
CHAPTER I.
Hontheim's Recantation — The Erection of a Nunciature
IN Munich.
(1)
" You are accepting in the name of Christ the mission of
guarding and taking under your protection, on the Rhine, the
faith and the authority of the Apostohc Cathedra of St. Peter,
whence derives the priestly dignity of all Bishops." These
words were spoken by Pius VI. in St. Peter's on Sep-
tember 24th, 1775, when he had consecrated Carlo Bellisomi
Bishop and had dispatched him as nuncio to Cologne.^ Clearly
a Pope who granted commissions in this decisive fashion
intended to deal differently from his predecessor with the
ecclesiastical movements in Western Germany.
Pius VI. 's principal aim was to win over Klemens Wenzes-
laus. Elector of Trier, and through him to induce the author of
the Febronius, whose identity had long since ceased to be
unknown, to recant his dangerous doctrines. It was with this
idea in mind that the Pope spoke in his allocution of the
special ecclesiastical and political conditions that prevailed in
the Rhenish dioceses, alluding thereby in an unmistakable
way to the composition and distribution of anti-clerical books,
even by high-ranking Catholic dignitaries. The sharpness of
the words he used in referring to these facts indicate the
personal feeling with which he observed the growth of the evil.
Bellisomi arrived in Cologne on January 4th, 1776. In early
June of that year he paid his visit to the Archbishop of Trier
^ The address was quickly published in printed form by the
Apostolic Camera. Reproduced in Lebret, Magazin, V., 351 seqq.,
and in Bull. Cont., VI., i, 158 seqq. The passage quoted will be
found there under § 2, p. 159. This section on Febronius is
based partly on preliminary work done by Professor Vierncisel of
Heidelberg.
2 HISTORY OF THE POPES
at Coblenz, where he stayed five days.^ He took the oppor-
tunity of speaking with the Archbishop perfectly openly about
the Febronius, whose author resided in his territory and who,
with all his scholarship, was endangering the rights of the
Roman See to such an extent that the Pope had given him, the
nuncio, a definite commission in the matter.
These representations of the nuncio, which could have had
no other object than to pave the way for negotiations, fell on
ground that was not entirely unprepared. Since the Alsatian
Franz Heinrich Beck had come within the inner circle of the
Archbishop's acquaintances, in 1773, things had not been the
same in Trier as in the days when the Elector had given his
suffragan Bishop protection and security without hesitation.
Beck, 2 who had had the advantage of being trained in Stras-
bourg, had worked as a member of the Society of Jesus in
Alsace, and then in Wiirttemberg. For some time now he had
been exerting a considerable influence on the Electoral Court
of Trier, and in an anti-Febronian direction.
It may have been at Beck's instigation that in 1775 Klemens
Wenzeslaus asked the Archbishop of Paris to obtain the
opinion of the French assembly of the clergy on the Febronius,
the principles of the French Church being Hontheim's great
authority. The opinion sent from Paris ^ turned out un-
favourably for Hontheim ; it rejected Febronius's attack on
the Papacy, brought out sharply its divergences from the
Galilean conception, and reprehended its inaccuracy in
questions of the highest importance. The Elector now wanted
the work to be censored by the Sorbonne, and the basis for this
was to be a thorough examination of Febronius's volumes.
The most suitable person for the task seemed to be the Roman
^ Mejer, 276.
* Ibid., loi seqq., 283 seqq. For Beck, see J. Gass, in the
Revue catholique d' Alsace, XXXIX. (1924), 2 seqq. ; cf. id.. La
disgrace de I'abbi F. H. Beck, ibid., 615 seqq.
3 Coup d'oeil sur le congrSs d'Ems (Diisseldorf, 1787), loi seqq.
Klemens Wenzeslaus attached the opinion to his *letter to
Bellisomi of July 14, 1776 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A, Papal
Secret Archives).
FEBRONIUS EXAMINED BY MAMACHI 3
Dominican Thomas Maria Mamachi/ a distinguished scholar
and archaeologist from Chios, who in the years that followed
was to prove to be a notable literary opponent of Febronianism.
In the form of letters, the first volumes of which appeared in
1776 and 1777,^ he assembled very skilfully the logical and
factual weaknesses of the Febronian system.
Bellisomi expressed his agreement with the Elector's
intentions, especially as his zeal had been commended to him
by the Cardinal Secretary of State ; all that he wanted now
was that the Pope should be informed.^ Klemens Wenzeslaus
agreed to this, provided that his intentions were kept secret.
Meanwhile he was eagerly awaiting Mamachi's opinion.^
In Rome, however, this manner of procedure seemed to offer
no definite solution.^ Pius VI. was convinced that Febronius's
system could only be rendered harmless by inducing its author
^ Cf. *ibid. ; Kuntziger, 100 seqq.
2 " Fr. Thomae Mariae Mamachi Ord. Praed. Theologi
Casanatensis Epistolarum ad lustinum Febronium ICtum de
ratione regendae Christianae Reipublicae deque legitima Romani
Pontificis potestate liber primus," Romae, 1776 (liber secundus
1777). As a reward Mamachi was appointed Secretary to the
Congregation of the Index. Cf. also *KIemens Wenzeslaus to
Bellisomi on August 23, 1776 (Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cit.).
Mamachi's work was not permitted in Vienna (*PalIavicini to
Garampi, September 22 and October 26, 1776 ; Nunziat. di
Germania, 667, loc. cit.). Cf. Gendry, I., 191.
3 *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, July 27, 1776 (Nunziat.
di Germania, loc. cit.). In the *Cifra to Bellisomi of February 22,
1776 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772, ibid.) the Elector is commended
for his efforts to have the Febronius banned by the Sorbonne.
* *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, November 20, 1776 {ibid.).
* *Cifra to Bellisomi, November 2, 1776 {ibid.) ; *Klemens
Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, December 2, 1776 {ibid., 772). In this
letter the Archbishop asked for information about the decrees
of the Index against Febronius and for a summary of all the
episcopal prohibitions. Bellisomi sent him a list of the latter *on
January 2, 1777, but the information about the Index was sent to
the nuncio in confidence only, under date *March i, 1777 (Nunziat.
di Colonia, 189A, loc. cit. ; cf. ibid. 772).
4 HISTORY OF THE POPES
to make a formal recantation. Besides, the Archbishop of
Paris considered that a censure by the Sorbonne would be
impracticable, as Hontheim's work had been banned by
Bishops only, at the Papal desire, not expressly by the Pope
himself.^ Klemens Wenzeslaus regretted the failure of his plan
and signified his readiness to pave the way for the course
proposed by Rome.
Bishop Hontheim, however, thought that his position was
as unassailable as ever. Certainly his superior had given him
a clear sign of his displeasure by nominating as Coadjutor the
Strasbourg Regens, Herbain,^ with whose processus informa-
tivus Garampi, the nuncio to Vienna, had been charged,^ but
Hontheim was so little disturbed by this that in the summer
of 1777 he was bold enough to publish a shortened edition of
his work, which had finally become unwieldy. This Febro-
nianus abbreviatus,^ which was adapted even more than the
previous editions to the widest possible circulation and already
contained an answer to the first volume of Mamachi's letters,
^ *Kleinens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, Munich, January 28,
1777 {ibid., 189A) ; cf. *Cifra to Doria, the nuncio to France, of
April 3, 1776 (Nunziat. di Francia, 461A, fo. 109, loc. cit.).
2 Hontheim had suggested other names, but they were not
considered. The proposal to appoint Herbain was *reported by
Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi on March 31, 1777 (Nunziat.
di Colonia, 189A, ibid.). Cf. Marx, Geschichie des Erzstiftes
Trier, V., 118.
' *Cifra to Garampi of June 28, 1777 (Nunziat. di Germania,
667, loc. cit.). For the difficulties encountered in the processus
informativus, cf. *KIemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi on June 2,
1777 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A, loc. cit.) ; cf. *Cifra to Bellisomi
of July 16, 1777 {ibid. 772). Herbain was consecrated Bishop on
May 31, 1778.
* " lustinus Febronius abbreviatus et emendatus, id est de
statu Ecclesiae Tractatus, ex Sacra Scriptura, Traditione et
melioris notae Catholicis Scriptoribus adornatus, ab Auctore
ipso in hoc Compendium redactus," Coloniae et Francofurti,
1777. Cf. ZiLLiCH, 36. Klemens Wenzeslaus *\vrote on August 14,
1777, that he was trying to procure a copy (Nunziat. di Colonia,
189A, loc. cit.).
THE SHORTENED FEBRONIUS 5
announced itself on the very title-page as the production of the
same author who had compiled the larger work.
As early as March of this year Rome apparently had thought
that it would not be long before Hontheim would resign his
office/ but the appearance of the shortened Fehronius called
for fresh measures.^ The nuncio Bellisomi was asked to try
and persuade all the Bishops to ban the book, though in so
doing he was to take every precaution.^ However, the steps
taken by Bellisomi were not successful. Bishop von der
Asseburg, of Paderborn, replied * that it was better to treat
such books with contempt than to ban them, while the Bishop
of Hildesheim, Friedrich Wilhelm von Westfalen, feared that
a fresh censoring would do serious harm to his diocese.^
Wiirzburg ^ and Fulda ' were wilUng to ban the book, but only
when the necessity to do so was evident, whereas Liege pre-
ferred to let it die a natural death by saying nothing whatever
about it.^ Even Von Limburg-Stirum, the Bishop of Speyer, said
that he was more than willing to proceed against the book but
that they must not forget that a poor impression would be
made if only some of the German Bishops raised their voice
against it.^
A second visit of BelUsomi's to Klemens Wenzeslaus, in
August 1777, at his hunting lodge, Carlich, did not advance
1 The Pope's hope that the news of Hontheim 's resignation
would be verified was mentioned in the *Cifra to Bellisomi of
March 8, 1777 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772).
2 The Cardinal Secretary of State had already received a copy
in September {*Cifra to Garampi, September 27, 1777 ; Nunziat.
di Germania, 667, loc. cit.) and he sent it on to Mamachi to be
refuted {*Cifra to Garampi of December 6, 1777, ibid.).
3 *Cifra to Bellisomi, November 8, 1777 (Nunziat. di Colonia,
772, loc. cit.).
* *Under date December 14, 1777 {ibid. 189A).
^ *Under date December 15, 1777 (ibid.).
* *Under date January 5, 1778 {ibid.).
' *Under date January 7, 1778 {ibid.).
^ *Under date December 24, 1777 {ibid.).
» *Letter from Bruchsal under date January 7, 1778 {ibid.).
6 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the matter to any appreciable extent.^ It was only through
the movement originating soon afterwards in another literary
event and through the chance implication in it of the suffragan
Bishop of Trier, that the ball was set rolling again.
Johann Lorenz Isenbiehl,^ one-time chaplain to the students
at Gottingen, since 1773 professor of Oriental languages and
exegesis in the university of Mainz, had contested in his
lectures that the passage from the prophet Isaias (vii, 14)
referred to the Messias and his virginal conception and birth.
The Elector of Mainz, Emmerich Joseph, did no more than
reprimand Isenbiehl, but when the new Archbishop, Friedrich
Karl Joseph von Erthal, removed him from his post, Isenbiehl
employed his enforced leisure in elaborating his opinion in
a written work, which appeared in 1777 under the title Ein
neuer Versuch iiber die Weissagung vom Emanuel (" A fresh
attempt to explain the foretelling of Emmanuel "). The
author's name was given, but not the place of pubUcation,
which was Coblenz. The ecclesiastical authorities at Mainz now
dealt with him more severely,^ and on the strength of an
opinion given by the theological faculty they suspended him
from the exercise of his priestly faculties and committed him
to the vicariate prison. Although six of the Canons offered to
go bail for him, the conditions of his confinement were only
slightly alleviated and after an unsuccessful attempt at escape
they were reimposed in their former strictness.
Meanwhile Mainz had obtained the opinions of various other
1 According to Krufft (Mejer, 228) the Elector had by this
time already decided against Hontheim. On August 24, 1777,
Bellisomi *reported from Carlich to the Pope (Nunziat. di
Colonia, 187, loc. cit.) that he had found the Archbishop entirely
submissive towards Rome.
2 Fully dealt with in Walch, Religionsgeschichte, VIII. (1781),
7 seqq. C/. also Ersch-Gruber, Allg. Emykl, 2. Sektion, 23724.
Tell (1844), 339 seqq. ; Allg. Deutsche Biogr., XIV., 618 seqq. ;
Freih. Kirchenlex., VP., 860 seqq. ; Kuntziger, 105 seqq.
» The severe treatment of Isenbiehl by the Mainz authorities
was noted with approval in the *Cifra to Bellisomi of May 23,
1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772, loc. cit.).
ISENBIEHL S BOOK PROHIBITED 7
theological faculties.^ The suggestion that Rome should ban
the book seems first to have come from Bishop Von Limburg-
Stirum,^ who through his agent speeded up the leisurely
process with which Rome was dealing with the matter.^
Finally the Bishop wrote himself to the Pope, enclosing a
number of judgments. Under Pius VI. 's personal presidency
a formal prohibition of the book was issued, on account of its
" assertions which either favoured heresy or were heretical
in themselves ".* Isenbiehl submitted without demur at the
^ The first condemnation of the book, even before it had
appeared in print, had already taken place in 1775, at the hands
of the Viennese censorship, although Rautenstrauch, the director
of the theological faculty in Vienna, had written to Isenbiehl on
April 19, 1775, that he had found nothing unorthodox in the
book (Lebret, VIII., 22 seq.). The most severe judgment from
the personal point of view was that of Heidelberg, of March 17,
1778 ; that of Strasbourg (April 5, 1778) was merciless, too,
objectively ; the most lenient judgment was that of Salzburg
(April 21, 1778), though it was afterwards made more stringent
(Walch, loc. cit. ^6 seq.). On August i the Sorbonne denounced
the book as being rash, pernicious, scandalous, and erroneous.
^ J. RossLER, Die kirchliche Aufkldrung unter dem Speierer
Fur stbischof August v. Limburg-Stirum, Wiirzburg, 1914, 21 seqq. ;
cf. *Cifra to Bellisomi of June 13, 1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia,
772) and *Cifra to Garampi (Stirum commended) of June 23,
1778 (Nunziat. di Germania 667, Papal Secret Archives).
^ There the book had first to be translated into Latin (Rossler,
27). For its investigation by the Inquisition v. *Cifra to Bellisomi
of October 17, 1778 {loc. cit.) ; cf. also *Cifra to Garampi of
August 29, 1778 {ibid.).
* " Continentem doctrinam et propositiones respective falsas,
temerarias, scandalosas, perniciosas, erroneas, haeresi faventes
et haereticas." The observation that the book had been printed
without approbation was erroneous. Bull of September 20, 1779,
and the Mainz formula of publication in Schlozer, Briefwechsel,
6. Teil (1780), 364 se^^. ; Bull. Cont., VI., i, 621 ; cf. Reusch,
Index, 998 seq. ; *Cifra to Caleppi of September 22, 1779 (Nunziat.
di Germania, 667, loc. cit.). The course of the investigation of
Isenbiehl's book was described in detail by the Pope in his two
8 HISTORY OF THE POPES
end of December, 1779.^ Later the Archbishop conferred upon
him a valuable canonrj/, while in all his subsequent pubUca-
tions Isenbiehl upheld the authority of the Church's doctrinal
decisions without qualification.
The Isenbiehl case was connected with a turning-point in
Hontheim's career. The Mainz scholar had sent the Suffragan
the proofs of his Fresh Attempt in order to have his opinion on
it and also probably to use it to his advantage. After some
time Hontheim gave him a favourable opinion : he could not
agree with the main thesis of the book, but he could see no real
reason why the learned and industrious work should conflict
with faith and why it should not be printed, if only to stimulate
other scholars. 2
Unfortunately for Hontheim, this rashly given verdict of his
seems to have been made public immediately, and it lost him
his Archbishop's good opinion of him. In a letter of April 4th,
1778, Klemens Wenzeslaus rebuked him in vigorous language,
censuring not only his rashness and ignorance but also the
implacable hostiHty towards the Church that was patent in
his letter.^ Hontheim, though he could have cited the opinions
of reputable theologians who had gone even further than he
had,* declared that he was ready to do anything his superior
*Briefs of September 25, 1779, to the Archbishop of Mainz and
the Bishop of Speyer [Epist., V., 87, 93 ; Papal Secret Archives).
^ Isenbiehl signed his submission on Christmas Day, 1779.
Reusch, loc. cit.
2 Hontheim's letter to Isenbiehl written from Trier on Novem-
ber 6, 1777, in reply to one of September 4, 1777 (Lebret,
VIII., 24 seq.). This view was taken by the two theologians who
were officially asked for their opinions : the regular Trier censor,
Philipp Cordier, on November 4, 1777, and subsequently the
exegetist Johann Gertz on February i, 1778 {ihid., 24, 2,0 seqq.).
Cf. *Cifra to Bellisomi, July 18, 1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772 ;
Papal Secret Archives).
' Klemens Wenzeslaus *wrote to Bellisomi on June 12, 1778,
that as soon as he had heard of Hontheim's approval of Isenbiehl's
book he had tried to make him withdraw it (Nunziat. di Colonia,
189A ; loc. cit.).
* E.g. the Suffragan Bishop of Speyer, Seelmann (under date
HONTHEIM SUBMITS 9
might ask of him. He could not bear, he said, such disfavour
any longer and he assured the Archbishop of his readiness to
give his life for the Catholic Church, great as was the distinction
he had to draw between the Roman Church and the over-
weening demands of the Roman Court.^
This quaUfication touched on one of the main ideas con-
tained in the Fehronius and gave the Archbishop an excuse for
making some representations to his Suffragan about the book.^
As Hontheim, he wrote, had shown a conciliatory spirit
towards his Archbishop in the Isenbiehl affair, he might do the
same in the case of Fehronius. He had no desire to start an
academic dispute, but it was his duty to estabUsh the harmful-
ness of those dangerous doctrines and to remove the scandal
from his archdiocese. In earnestly advising him to retract the
January i6, 1778), and the opinion obtained by Dalberg, the
representative of the Electorate of Mainz, from the Wiirzburg
theologian Oberthiir (of December 22, 1777). Lebret, VIII.,
25 seqq. ; Rossler, 23.
1 Letter from Hontheim of April 9, in Lebret, VII., 3 seqq. ;
Stumper, 159.
2 To Hontheim, April 21, 1778, in Briefwechsel zwischen
Klemens Wenzeslaus und Niklas von Hontheim, Frankfurt a.M.,
181 3, 5 seqq. The editor of this booklet, which consists only of
the Archbishop's letters with enclosures, signs the preface with
the letter " V ". This stands for Niklas Vogt, as he tells us
himself in his Rheinische Geschichten und Sagen, IV. (1836), 225.
Cf. also the *Cifra to Garampi of May 30, 1778 : " Se nel
giustificarsi I'Hontheim col signor elettore di Treviri sulfa
sconsigliata approvazione del libro del sacerdote Isenbiehl
non ha saputo dissimulare il suo mal talento contro i sommi
pontefici, come risulta da uno dei fogli annessi alia Cifra di V. S.
Ill""* dei 7 spirante, parmi che molto meno sia sperabile la
ritrattazione insinuatagli dal ridetto zelante arcivescovo, la di
cui sensata del pari ed affettuosa lettera, quando anche non
giungesse ad eccitare alcun rimorso nell' autore del Febronio,
servira nondimeno a reprimere la folle di lui presunzione, ed
a fargli vieppiu comprendere in quale orribile combustione abbia
egli tentato di porre il cattolicismo e la chiesa col da lui mal' inteso
progetto della riunione degli eterodossi al grembo dell' antica lor
madre . . ." Nunziat. di Germania, 667, fo.368, loc. cit.
10 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Febronius he was prompted by his o\vti conviction, not b}^ the
exhortations of others. If the Suffragan agreed to recant, he
would gladly restore him to his full confidence and join him in
clearing the ground of all the weeds.
The promptness and the wholeheartedness with which
Hontheim agreed to fulfil the Archbishop's request must have
surprised the latter. Hontheim expressed his willingness to
write immediately to Rome a letter of apology and retractation.
Klemens Wenzeslaus congratulated him most joyfully on this
splendid victory over himself ^ and readily agreed to his taking
a month or two to prepare his letter to Rome. A summary,
compiled by a Frenchman, of the objectionable propositions
in the Fehronius contained sixteen of them, to the astonish-
ment of the Elector, who admitted,^ when forwarding the
summary to Hontheim, that this was the first time he was
aware that such propositions were to be found in the Fehronius.
On receiving Hontheim's draft of the proposed missive to
Rome, in mid- June, 1778, the Elector was " profoundly
comforted and was even moved to tears of joy " .^ Neverthe-
less, lest he might be too hasty, he deemed it necessary to have
1 To Hontheim, May 8, 1778, Briefwechsel, 12 seqq. Marx
(V., 119) ascribes the compilation of the objectionable pro-
positions to the French theologian Bergier, whereas Krufift
thought it was Canon Pey of Notre Dame, Paris (Meker, 228 seq.).
2 To Hontheim on May 29, 1778 {Briefwechsel, 15 seqq.), in
reply to his letter of May 10. Hontheim now held back the
manuscript, which he had just completed and was about to be
sent to the printer, of his confutation of Mamachi's second book
of letters. Krufft pressed very hard for the publication of this
Epistola ad Th. Mamachium, but it did not take place ; the
manuscript, however, came into the Pope's hands in 1782 through
the agency of Klemens Wenzeslaus. The text of this manuscript
(Cod. Vat. 1 1824 of the Vatican Library) was published by Leo
Just in the Quellen und Forschungen aus ital. Archiven, XXH.
(1930), 256-288.
' Hontheim's *missive of June 14, 1778, was *acknowledged by
the Elector on the 23rd (both documents in Nunziat. di Colonia,
772, Papal Secret Archives). The latter is dated the 22nd in
the Briefwechsel {ig seq.).
HONTHEIM S RECANTATION II
the draft examined carefully, again by a Frenchman. The
fact was that in the meantime slight suspicions of Hontheim's
sincerity had been aroused in the Elector's mind by a further
letter of June 25th, in which the Suffragan had quoted fresh
authorities and view-points in defence of the Fehronius and
in refutation of the opinion that had been sent to him.
Klemens Wenzeslaus, understandably enough, wrote a sharp
reply to this letter ^ and asked Hontheim " to consider
everything without prejudice, together with God and his
conscience ". The result he would gladly forward to Rome.
From this point onward one event followed another in rapid
succession. On August 2nd Klemens Wenzeslaus sent on
Hontheim's draft, which was couched in the form of a dog-
matic confession, to Bellisomi, the nuncio to Cologne, expres-
sing the hope that the Pope would be satisfied with it.^
Belhsomi forwarded it a few days later to the Cardinal Secre-
tary of State. 3 So soon after as August 22nd Pius VI. was
writing a commendatory Brief to the Elector of Trier, signi-
fying in the strongest way his joy and gratitude for what had
been effected.* Something, he added, had been found in the
document which was of no great importance in itself but
which might provide the enemy with an opportunity for
contradiction. Having promised his complete submission,
Hontheim would doubtless make the necessary adjustments
in these small matters. Instead of threats, the Pope made the
most attractive promises : if Hontheim did what was asked,
he would not only forgive him but he would bestow upon him,
along with the reconciliation, his entire affection and paternal
1 On July 1 6, 1778 {Briefwechsel, 21 seqq.). Hontheim's letter
was accompanied by a detailed refutation in Latin of the sixteen
points set out in the French opinion. (Mejer, 303 seqq.).
2 *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, August 2, 1778 (Nunziat.
di Colonia, 189A, loc. cit., together with the original of Hontheim's
retractation) .
8 Hontheim's letter, with the Elector's *covering letter of
August 2, was *forwarded by Bellisomi to Rome under date
August 5 (ibid.).
* Briefwechsel, 27 seqq., also in Nunziat. di Q)lonia, loc. cit.
12 HISTORY OF THE POPES
love. Finally it was the Pope's desire that in the future the
learned Suffragan should use his erudition to repair the scandal
that had been spread throughout the whole Church.
On September 17th Klemens Wenzeslaus passed this Brief ^
on to his Suffragan, with the note that presumably there was
nothing to hinder the fulfilment of the Papal wishes.^ He also
spoke for the first time — and this surprised Hontheim more
than anything — of making the recantation public. On the
same day as he received this letter the Suffragan wrote back^
that he would readily fulfil the wishes of Rome but that he had
the greatest misgivings about a pubhc recantation. If he
acknowledged his authorship, which hitherto he had never
openly admitted but on the contrary had consistently denied,
all that he had built up so laboriously during his thirty years'
work in the archdiocese would be brought down in ruins.
A more suitable procedure, in his opinion, would be for him to
pubhsh under his own name a work that would confute all the
Febronian ideas and would contain the main points of the
recantation. The Elector, however, would have none of these
objections and in a letter of October 4th ^ insisted that it was
precisely the acknowledged learning of the author that would
make a recantation more effective than a confutation. On
this point, as on others, it was best to submit entirely to the
will of the Holy Father.
The Suffragan, who in the meantime had retired to his
1 Briefwechsel, 25 seq. Krufft (Mejer, 231, 294 seq.) attaches
particular importance to the Elector's stay of a few days in
Trier at the beginning of September, but there is no evidence of
this in the other documents nor any question of intimidation.
2 *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, September 9, 1778
(promising to carry out the Pope's commands and assuring him
of Hontheim's wiUingness). (Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cii.).
3 On September 17, 1778 (Cardauns, Ehrengabe fiir J oh.
Georg von Sachsen, 739 seq.). The nuncio informed Rome of these
doubts and difficulties in his *report of October 15, 1778 (Nunziat.
di Colonia, loc. cit.).
* Briefwechsel, 31 seq. ; cf. Bellisomi's *report to Rome of
October 15, 1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. at.).
HONTHEIM ACCEDES TO THE PAPAL WISHES I3
country residence, while yielding to the Pope's desire, made
one last attempt to avoid the pain of self-exposure.^ But
Klemens Wenzeslaus would not relax his stringency and
demanded the disregard of all human considerations. ^ At the
same time he forwarded another Papal Brief, of September
12th, requiring Hontheim to declare in his recantation that he
had written it because of his own sincere convictions and not
at anyone's command. He would find enclosed the alterations
and improvements desired by Rome.^
Making no further objection, the Suffragan submitted his
recantation to his superior on November 1st, 1778, and it was
forwarded by the latter to Bellisomi on the 15th.^ Only one
brief phrase had been omitted, that which acknowledged the
monarchical constitution of the Church,^ for which omission
Klemens Wenzeslaus accepted personal responsibihty.^ In all
other respects the Papal wishes had been met. The Elector, in
a covering letter,' briefly surveyed the whole affair, including
his own attitude towards it, and begged the Papal pardon for
his Suffragan Bishop, who had now cast aside all false pride
and was willing to acknowledge himself openly as the author,
^ Hontheim to Klemens Wenzeslaus, from Montquintin,
October 14, 1778 (Cardauns, loc. cit., j^oseq.).
^ To Hontheim, October 17, 1778 [Brief wechsel, 33 seq.). On
October 6 Klemens Wenzeslaus had *thanked the nuncio BelH-
somi for the Brief he had transmitted and expressed the fear that
Hontheim was unlikely to make a public acknowledgment of his
authorship of the Febronius. Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cit.
* *Brief to Klemens Wenzeslaus of September 12, 1778
(ibid.) ; Briefwechsel, 35 seqq. ; Reusch, 942 seq. Zaccaria was
credited with the chief responsibility for the improvements
desired by Rome (borne out by Krufft, in Mejer 296).
* The Elector's covering letter to the nuncio in Briefwechsel,
40 seqq. ; cf. Stumper, 160.
^ " ut proinde merito monarchicum Ecclesiae regimen a
catholicis Doctoribus appelletur."
* To Hontheim, November 15, 1778 {Briefwechsel, 38).
' *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Pius VI., from Ehrenbreitstein,
November 15, 1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cit. ; published with
the consistorial acts mentioned below).
14 HISTORY OF THE POPES
which was the best possible proof of the sincerity of his
repentance.^
Hontheim's recantation ^ was an important document, for,
with the improvements considered necessary by the Pope, it
included all the essential features of the Church's doctrine on
the primacy.
In the introduction Hontheim acknowledges himself to be
the author of the Febronius and of the works written in its
defence, and he regrets the insult thereby offered to the Holy
See and the errors arising from an ill-considered zeal. " The
authority of Your Holiness, which I recognize as that of Jesus
Christ, has freed me from error, and I hereby lay my real
views ^ on the constitution of the Church and the supreme
rights of St. Peter as the Prince of the x\postles at the feet of
his successor. It is in this belief that I wish to live and die."
Citing the authoritative sources of the Church's teaching and
confuting the erroneous opinions put forward in the Febronius,
Hontheim proceeds to make his declarations about the Church
and the primacy, the succession from St. Peter and the right
of the Bishops, and finally about the relation between the
Church and the State.
He perceives and confesses that the keys of the Church have
been given to Peter alone, who as its supreme member next to
Christ and as its director and leader under Christ is the repre-
sentative of the whole body. At the same time, however, the
keys have been given to the unity of the universal Church, to
the other Apostles and the Bishops, in dependence on and in
submission to Peter, who has received the keys for himself
alone, to use them in common with the others. As is known
by the teaching of the Fathers, by this appointment of one
supreme head of the Church the possibility of disunion has
been precluded. " Ubi Peirus, ibi Ecclesia."
The successor of St. Peter is by divine right the Bishop of
^ Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, November i8, 1778
(Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cit.).
^ *Original ibid.
' " genuinos animi mei sensus."
HONTHEIM S RECANTATION EXAMINED 15
Rome, who has complete power over the universal Church,
with authority, jurisdiction, and the power to punish, in
particular the right of excommunication. The Bishops who
adhere to their supreme head cannot possibly stray from the
path of truth, since the Church at one with its head, whether
scattered over the surface of the globe or assembled in council,^
cannot err in decisions affecting faith and morals nor separate
itself from the cathedra of the Prince of the Apostles. The
faithful have to abide by these decisions, not only in respectful
silence but with inward assent. Similar obedience must be
given to the Constitution Unigenitus, which is a dogmatic
decree of the Holy See.
Doubts about the constitution of the Church are also to be
brought before the Head of the Church. It is his right, too,
to summon General Councils, to direct them, and confirm their
findings ; it is only through his co-operation that they acquire
validity and infallibility. Very rightly the Council of Trent
has reserved to the Pope the right to take disciplinary action
against the Bishops, also the decision in particularly difficult
cases and exceptional dispensations from conciliar decisions.
Likewise, the Pope's right to ordain, translate, or depose
Bishops is incontestable.
Then come the recognition and declaration of the powers of
the Holy See in regard to canonizations, appeals, and reserva-
tions, and the State is requested to observe concordats with
the greatest care, for the Pope would not think of infringing
them. The annates, too, were of great use, until the Holy See
had devised some other means of meeting its needs, also the
exemption of the Regulars, which could not be abolished by
the secular power or by a particular synod. Abuses had been
guarded against by the Council of Trent.
The Bishops are installed, not by the body of the faithful,
but by the Holy Ghost, to direct the flocks entrusted to them,
under the control of the Bishop of Rome, and only within
^ " in quibus Episcopi lure proprio ac iudiciaria potestate
sibi ex institutione Christi cohaerente una cum Summo Pontifice.
definiunt."
l6 HISTORY OF THE POPES
their dioceses, not outside them. Their rights, in so far as they
have been circumscribed by canon law in the course of time,
are not to be extended on the strength of private authority.
" In everything that concerns the faith, the sacraments, and
ecclesiastical disciphne, the Church makes its decisions
entirely b}^ its own right (' pleno iure ') without the co-
operation of the civil authority." In the mutual protective
relation between the Church and State the desire and the
right of the Church are to be respected, and every effort should
be made to avoid a conflict.
With these unequivocal statements the rights of the Papacy
were recognized. In conclusion the writer expressed his sincere
wilUngness to do anything further that the Pope might require
of him in the matter. In begging pardon for his errors he
professed his adherence to the Church of Rome as the Mother
of all Christians in the clear language of St. Bernard and
St. Jerome, without pretence or deception.
The great importance attached by Rome to the Febronius
affair ^ was shown by the very solemn way in which the Pope
himself undertook the publication of the retractation. After
the Mass of Christmas Day he assembled the Senate of the
Church in a secret consistory at the tomb of St. Leo, where he
imparted to them the joyful news. The session ^ was opened
^ The Pope also expressed his satisfaction in a *Cifra to
Bellisomi of December 5, 1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772 ; Papal
Secret Archives).
* " Acta in consistorio secrete habito a SS. D. N. Pio div. prov.
Papa sexto feria VI Dec. MDCCLXXVIII solemni dominicae
nativitatis die statim post missam pontificalem in basilica
Vaticana prope B.M.V. de Columna et S. Leonis Magni altaria,
qui locus nunc pro sacrario est, nondum novo quod construitur
absoluto." They were printed in the press of the Apostolic
Camera and reprinted several times. Cf. Bull. Cont., VI., 529-541
(the date given here, 529, is December 19, but in 541, § 9, it is
quite clearly the 25th). The course of the consistorial pro-
ceedings was also *reported by Cardinal Albani to the imperial
chancery in Vienna on December 26, 1778 (Archives of the
Austrian Embassy to the Vatican ; cf. Woker, 27 seqq. ; Gendry,
I., 192 seqq.).
THE RECANTATION PUBLISHED IN ROME I7
by Pius VI. with an allocution in which he recalled the evil
effects of the Febronius, formally named its real author for
the first time, and gave prominence to the services of the
Archbishop of Trier in setthng the matter. Then the Secretary
of the Briefs. Benedetto Stay, read the Elector's covering
letter and Hontheim's complete retractation. In a further
allocution the Pope laid stress on the obvious sincerity of the
withdrawal, which had been made without any compulsion and
was due solely to the recognition of the truth. He ended by
granting Hontheim full pardon and by receiving him back with
affection into the Apostolic peace.
Some days before, on December 19th, 1778, two Briefs had
been made out,^ informing the two prelates of Trier that the
reconciliation had been completed and calling on Hontheim to
compose an anti-Febronian work, which alone could add more
weight to his recantation. Klemens Wenzeslaus knew nothing
of the Christmas consistory when he forwarded the Brief to his
Suffragan on January 11th and congratulated him on the
successful struggle with himself.^ Hontheim, he thought,
having won the most splendid battle with himself, had more
right than anyone to sing a song of victory, and for this
reason too he himself could tell the world of the reconciliation
that had been completed. He also encouraged him to under-
take the new work.
A few days later the Elector received the news about the
Christmas consistory, and in another letter to his Suffragan
^ *Parchment originals in Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A {loc. cit.).
There too are several *congratulatory letters to Pius VI. In a
♦Brief of July 24, 1779 (Epist. Ao V, fo. 50, ibid.) the Pope thanked
Duke Ludwig Eugen of Wiirttemberg for his letter of congratula-
tion of January 22, 1779. In another letter, of January 6, 1779,
the Cardinal Secretary of State congratulated Klemens Wenzes-
laus and praised his services (Mejer, 1^0 seq.).
* Briefwechsel, 43 seqq. Klemens Wenzeslaus *reported on this
to Bellisomi under date January 12, 1779 (Nunziat. di Colonia,
loc. cit.). The Elector did not want to announce the recantation
(" one might think that I wanted to trumpet the victory ").
Briefwechsel, 45.
VOL. XL. , c
l8 HISTORY OF THE POPES
he pointed out that the Pope's gentle method of procedure was
evidence of his great paternal joy at the settlement of the
trouble. This should make it all the easier for the Suffragan
to inform his diocese also of his change of opinion. The
Elector offered to have the proceedings of the consistory
printed at his own expense, while Hontheim should announce
in a foreword to them, in a pastoral letter, the motives of his
recantation, his sorrow for his lapse, a promise to produce
shortly an anti-Febronian work, and the prohibition of the
writings he had recanted.^ Hontheim signified his assent, but
in the draft of his pastoral letter he tried to obtain some
alleviations for himself, so that it did not entirely satisfy the
Elector, who had to make some alterations in it.^ The Elector
also did his best to remove Hontheim's dissatisfaction with the
publication made by Rome.^
On January 24th, 1779, the Suffragan wrote to the Pope *
1 Briefwechsel, 46 seq. Klemens Wenzeslaus *reported this to
Bellisomi on January 15, 1779 (Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cit.) and
*Bellisomi to Rome on January 21 (189A, ibid).
2 Klemens Wenzeslaus to Hontheim on February i, 1779
[Briefwechsel, 52 seq., with enclosure, ibid. 62 seqq.). Hontheim
thought that he had written the letter in such a way as to satisfy
his supporters in Vienna as well as Rome [cf. his letter to Krufit
of February 4, 1779, in Mejer, 149, n. i). Except for a few
characteristic variations he finally adopted the desired phrasings
almost word for word.
3 Hontheim's letter of January 21 was answered by Klemens
Wenzeslaus on the 24th [Briefwechsel, 49 seqq.). The Elector too
was rather put out by the Roman style [v. his letter of February
15. 1779 ; ibid., 56). Hontheim's dissatisfaction was evinced
in a letter to Krufft of February 4, 1779 (Mejer, 149, n. i, and
" Treveris ", 1835, No. 3). On January 21 the Elector had
.sent his Suffragan a copy of another Papal Brief, of January 2,
in which the Pope had given a full account of the consistory
and had again spoken very favourably about Hontheim (reprinted
in Hontheim's Commentarius , 1294 seqq. ; the Elector's covering
letter in Briefwechsel, 48).
* *Hontheim to Pius VI. January 24, 1779 : " Omnia hacc (the
Briefs, etc.) spirant tantum non incredibilem in Ste V^ animi mag-
HONTHEIM S PASTORAL LETTER 19
to thank him for the pardon that had been granted him, also
to inform him that he was working at the pastoral letter.
This communication and the Elector's accompanying note of
February 1st was answered by the Pope in a further Brief of
February ITth.^ Meanwhile Klemens Wenzeslaus had reported
to Rome — where the news naturally was received with much
pleasure — the appearance of the pastoral letter along with the
consistorial proceedings.^ Half-way through the month a copy
of the publication was sent by Beck to the nuncio in Cologne.^
More trouble arose when the printing of this pastoral letter
nitudinem, caritatem et benevolentiam in me, ea minime dignurti,
infinitum cuius'meritumextollere non est meum. Offers mihi. Pater
optime, tuam clementiam, praesidium atque tutelam adversus
cos, qui mihi forte propter Febronii systematis obiectionem
graves esse possent." This makes me doubly beholden to you.
" Superest ut iuxta tuum, S. Pater, desiderium imposterum
calamum stringam ad vindicanda summae sedis iura et praeroga-
tivas abas a Febronio temere impugnatas. Sed quid hac in parte
expectabis a viro octogenario continuis laboribus fracto ? Conabor
tamen . . ." Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A, Papal Secret Archives.
Klemens Wenzeslaus transmitted the *original letter to Bellisomi
on February i, 1779, along with Hontheim's *letter to the
Elector of January 31 {ibid.).
^ How pleased the Pope was to hear of Hontheim's good will
was indicated in the *Cifra to Garampi of February 13, 1779
(Nunziat. di Germania, 667, fo. 424, loc. cit.) : " Per commissione
del signor elettore di Treveri fu gia prevenuto il Santo Padre
da monsignor Bellisomi dell' arrivo del pontificio Breve alle mani
di monsignor d'Hontheim ; della divota rassegnazione con cui
era stato accolto, e della rispettosa deferenza che mostrava alle
insinuazioni di S. B^e sulla suggerita confutazione dell' opera,
benche egli dubiti di poterla condurre a fine, attesa la di lui
cadente eta e il lungo tempo, che occorrerebbe almeno di due
anni per compirla. Convengo pero anch' io nel sentimento di
V. S. IIli"a di non doversi da noi molto insistere su questo
lavoro ..."
2 *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Pius VI. on February 8, 1779
(Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A, loc. at.), similarly *to Bellisomi on
February 9 (ibid.).
* *From Ehrenbreitstein, February 15, 1779 [ibid.).
20 HISTORY OF THE POPES
of February 3rd and the Roman documents was prohibited in
Austria/ and preference was still given to Febronian principles
by the Austrian professors.^ Even the Elector of Mainz
refused to grant a printing licence.^ Of the foreign Powers the
1 The Abbot of Gleink, for instance, was fined for having the
documents printed, and both his edition and that of a printer
in Prague were confiscated. The Acta were not formally incor-
porated in the government list of forbidden books (Mejer,
156 seqq. ; Goyau, L'Allemagne relig., I., 17 seq.). Another
glimpse into Austrian conditions is afforded by a letter from the
Bishop of Seckau (Wyttenbach-Muller, Gesia Trevirorum,
III., 57). The necessary imperial placet for the publication of
Hontheim's work was also refused for those parts of the arch-
diocese that lay in Luxembourg {cf. Briefwechsel, 51, 53, 54 seq.).
Even Maria Theresa commented unfavourably on the recantation
(Mejer, 160). The Pope's complaints about this in the *Cifra
to Garampi of January 20, 1779 (Nunziat. di Germania, 667, Papal
Secret Archives). Cf. Kuntziger, 121 seqq. ; Kirsch-Veit,
Kir change sch., IV., i, 304.
2 According to the *Cifra to Garampi of February 27, 1779
(Nunziat. di Germania, 667, fo. 426, loc. cit.), the Viennese
Febronians should be made to read Hontheim's pastoral letter,
which had given so much pleasure to the Pope : " Per dissipare
poi e confondere il fermento e i sofismi di cotesti letterati politic!
allarmati contro la ritrattazione, contribuira senza meno il
proemio dello stesso monsignor Hontheim premesso alia ristampa
degli Atti concistoriali pubblicati d'ordine del signor elettore di
Treveri, essendo per cosi dire una piu succinta e sugosa ratifica
della ritrattazione medesima. II Santo Padre, a cui dal signor
elettore ne e stato trasmesso un esemplarc, I'ha molto com-
mendato e gradito, ed e uniforme il giudizio di chiunque I'ha
letto, che basti da se a prevenire e confutare i cavilli e le sinistre
interpretazionide' malign i censor i ..." Mamachi's letters against
Febronius also fell foul of the Viennese censor ; cf. *Cifra to
Caleppi of September 4 and 29, 1779 {ibid.).
* He wanted in fact to come to an arrangement with Prince
Kaunitz about a concerted action, but the proposal did not
succeed ; v. Kaunitz's letter of March 4, 1779, in Wyttenbach-
Muller, loc. cit., 56 seq. According to the document belonging to
the imperial legation in Coblenz, Cologne and Salzburg had also
DOUBTS OF HONTHEIM S SINCERITY 21
Council of Castile eventually decreed the prohibition and the
suppression of the recantation and the consistorial pro-
ceedings.^ In Germany, on the other hand, the attitude of the
Electoral Court of the Palatinate at Mannheim was particularly
friendly towards Rome.^
At this point Hontheim himself provided grounds for
doubting his sincerity. A letter of his to his relative Krufft,^
who did not keep the matter to himself, gave rise to the rumour
in Vienna that Hontheim's recantation had been extracted
from him by force. Further, when replying to Cardinal
forbidden the pastoral letter to be printed [Briefwechsel 73 seqq.).
In a *Cifra of May i, 1778 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772, loc. cit.)
Bellisomi had been ordered to find out if the printing of the letter
really had been forbidden in Mainz.
^ Notification from Madrid, of February 24, 1779 (Wytten-
BACH-MiJLLER, III., 55 seq.).
2 Cf. *Cifra to Bellisomi of February 20, 1779 (Nunziat. di
Colonia, loc. cit.).
^ Of January 17, 1779 (Mejer, 114, n. 2). Krufft's publication
of the letter did not have the desired effect ever5rwhere {v. the
letter from Prince Kaunitz to Krufft of January 26, 1779, in
Brunner, Humor, II., 170). An unofficial statement of Hon-
theim's, of the same purport, which appeared in the Hamburger
Zeitung of August 18, 1781, in a report from Frankfurt, may
have been made about the same time. Mejer (155, n. 2) quotes
an equally remarkable statement made to one of his relatives in
Cologne. So far as is known, not one of Hontheim's statements
contains a criticism of his position from the religious and
ecclesiastical standpoint, but very often the curious argument
that even though they had been retracted, the propositions of
Febronius would carry all before them in the world. In a confi-
dential *letter to Bellisomi of May 14, 1779, Klemens Wenzeslaus
made the following observations : " M. de Hontheim excede par
les reproches que ses amis de Vienne lui ont faits, d'etre devenu
tout-a-coup ultramontain, a eu la faiblesse de dire et d'ecrire
que, s'il n'eut pas ete intimide par le S. Pere, il ne ffit jamais
alle si loin dans sa retractation. Les pretendues menaces doivent
se trouver dans ces paroles du bref que le S. Pere a adresse a
S.A.E. le 12. Septembre 1778 : Quod si nihil . . . pracclusum ? "
Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A, loc. cit.
22 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Migazzi of Vienna, who had congratulated him on his recan-
tation,^ the Suffragan spoke of the " excellent canonists " of
Vienna, who in fact were all Febronianists at heart. And
finally Krufft gave further pubhcity to this question of a forced
recantation by means of the Press,^ whereupon the foreign
papers, the Protestant ones in particular,^ seized upon the
matter with evident satisfaction. Trier was at a loss how to
counter these moves of the Febronianists, and the Elector
thought of threatening to pubhsh the whole story of the
recantation based on the correspondence.* The Roman
ciphers also spoke of the enormous damage done by these
reports.^
The Elector, however, succeeded in obtaining from his
Suffragan a promise not to speak to him again of attempts to
intimidate him, and he offered to send the Empress Maria
Theresa all the material relating to the events that had led up
to the recantation, for pubUcation if necessary. « Finally,
however, Hontheim himself wrote him a letter on April 22nd,'
stating most definitely that all the Press reports were false and
1 WoLFSGRUBER, 391 seq. Hontheim had answered a con-
gratulatory letter from Abbot Martin Gerbert of St. Blasien in
a more fitting manner (Mejer, 151, n. i).
2 Mejer, 156 ; Kuntziger, 136, 139 seqq.
3 *Cifra to Caleppi of June 9, 1779 (Nunziat. di Germania,
667 ; Papal Secret Archives).
* *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, May 14, 1779 (Nunziat.
di Colonia, 189 A, loc. cit.).
5 *Cifra to Bellisomi, June 22, 1778 {ibid. 772) ; *Cifra to
Caleppi of August 11, 1779 (Nunziat. di Germania, 667 ; loc. cit.).
In the *CiJ'ra to Caleppi of July 7, 1779 (ibid.) it was emphasized
that Rome's victory consisted solely in the voluntary recantation.
« *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi on May 14, 1779 {loc. cit.),
warning him that Hontheim had an excitable disposition and
that it might be dangerous to drive him to extremes.
' The letter to the Elector of April 22, 1779, in Mejer, 169 seqq.
The Elector *sent on the letter to Bellisomi on May 14, 1779
(Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A ; loc. cit.). The letter was never
published, although the matter was resurrected in the Press {Brief-
wechsel, 59 seqq.).
HONTHEIM RETIRES FROM OFFICE 23
denying that he was in any way responsible for their appear-
ance. On receiving from the Papal Secretary of State a protest
against the falsity of such representations, the Elector wrote
in a similar vein to the Empress, describing the true sequence
of events.^
At about this time the Elector, acceding to the wish of his
aged Suffragan, agreed to his retiring from office. Hontheim
was relieved of all business, without having to suffer any
appreciable reduction of revenue. ^ As Dean of the Trier
chapter of St. Simeon he was succeeded by a relative of the
same name. By Rome too Hontheim was treated with the
utmost consideration. The prohibition issued by the Secretary
of State against the printing of Mamachi's third volume of
letters to Febronius was too late to take effect,^ but the
appearance of the fourth volume, which had been projected,
was prevented.'* Nevertheless the rumour of the forced
recantation still went on. Finally Klemens Wenzeslaus urged
1 Klemens Wenzeslaus *wrote to Bellisomi on July 7, 1779,
that he had done so a month previously {loc. cit.).
2 Mejer, 172 seqq.
^ It had already appeared in the summer of 1778. Klemens
Wenzeslaus had himself suggested that it be prohibited {v. *Cifra
to Caleppi on June 2, 1779, Nunziat. di Germania, 667, loc. cit.).
* *Cifra to Caleppi of June 2, 1779 {ibid.). The authorities
were anxious not to make things more difficult for Hontheim,
who was being pressed hard enough by his supporters. Cf. the
*Cifra to Garampi of April 3, 1779 (ibid.) : " Sugli effetti per-
niciosi che possono produrre nell' animo di monsignor Hontheim
tanto gli acerbi rimproveri dei di lui antichi partigiani, quanto
gli encomi mal ponderati di alcuni troppo zelanti cattohci, mi
uniformo anch' io al di lei sentimento, anzi a dir vero fu sempre
tale a costante il mio giudizio sin dal primo momento che emano
la di lui ritrattazione. Ben per6 comprende V. S. Ill^a quanti sia
difficile di trattenere in certi casi le lingue e le penne di chi le
impiega senza consultarci. Da noi non si e risparmiato industria
e diligenza per frenare questo inconsiderato prorito ; e per non
esacerbare inopportunamente il suffraganeo di Treveri, si e
fatto sospendere al padre Mamachi 11 lavoro della confutazione
di Giustino Febronio."
24 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Hontheim to deny it publicly/ which he did in a satisfactory
manner.^ The Grand Duke of Tuscany was sent a copy of the
statement so that he could use it against the reports appearing
in the Florentine journals,^ and the Papal Secretary of State
communicated the text to various European nunciatures,
Krufft, of course, represented this statement too as having
been made under pressure.*
Meanwhile Hontheim was working at the commentary on his
recantation. 5 Krufft tried to dissuade him from pubhshing it/
but he was not successful, and after two years' work, which
Hontheim had foreseen would be necessary, the commentary
was published in 1781 by the same house that had published
his FehronmsJ The author's name did not appear, but the
book contained the proceedings of the Christmas consistory
* Klemens Wenzeslaus to Hontheim, March 30 and 31, 1780
(Wyttenbach-Muller, III., 5j seq.).
2 Ibid. 59. In making the denial on April 2, Hontheim gave
permission for it to be published in all the newspapers. *Klemens
Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi on April 4, 1780 (Nunziat. di Colonia
189A, loc. cit.). Cf. Katholik, 1891, II., 26 (dated April 7). For
Rome's satisfaction with the denial, cf. the *Cifra to Bellisomi
of April 29, 1780 (Nunziat. di Colonia, loc. cit.).
* *Klcmens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, April 10, 1780 {ibid.).
In Florence the notice had appeared in the Gazzetta universale
at the beginning of 1780. Cf. Brunati's *reports to Vienna of
February 26 and March 5, 1780 (State Archives, Vienna ; cf.
Mejer, 178, n. 2). Klemens Wenzeslaus wanted to write an
article against the Press reports himself, but afterguards entrusted
the task to Hontheim {v. his *letter to Bellisomi of March 29,
1780 ; Nunziat. di Colonia, 189A, loc. cit.). The *Cifra to Bellisomi
of April 6, 1780, expressed the same wish to Klemens Wenzeslaus
(ibid.).
* Mejer, 181 seq.
* *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, November 10, 1780
(loc. cit.).
" Mejer, 182, n. 2 ; KDntziger, 143 seqq.
' lustini Febronii /C'* commentarius in suam retractationem
Pio VI. Pont. Max. Kalend. Novembr. a. 1778 submissam.
Frankfurt, Esslinger, 1781.
hontheim's commentary on his recantation 25
and the pastoral letter that had been printed at the time, also
an assurance that the recantation was voluntary and sincere.
The Elector had watched the preparation of the book with an
anxious eye and would have liked to prevent its publication.^
He had very much wanted the text to be examined before
publication ^ but the work appeared without the ecclesiastical
permission. This was all the more surprising as Bellisomi had
had definite instructions from Rome to urge the Elector to keep
a careful watch on Hontheim and to see that the manuscript
was checked in Trier and Rome.^ But this latter request came
too late, the manuscript having been sent to the printer three
weeks before.* Beck tried to obtain for the nuncio a collection
of the doubtful passages in the text,^ while Klemens Wenzes-
laus wanted to obtain the opinions of various theological
faculties. Sometimes Hontheim seemed to agree, at other
times he made as if he had no concern with the book.® The
Archbishop advised him to state in a note that the book had
not been submitted to ecclesiastical censorship and that the
^ Mejer, 193 seq. ; * Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi,
November 10, 1780, loc. cit. In his *letter to Bellisomi of March 3,
1 781, Klemens Wenzeslaus expressed his pleasure at the Pope's
approval of his exertions, which approval was reiterated in the
*Cifra of April 4, 1781. Nunziat. di Colonia, 772, loc. cit.
2 *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, November 10, 1780
{ihid.).
' *The Pope asked the Elector " di non perder di vista I'autore
e di sempre meglio assicurarsi, affiinche non venga da lui com-
municato ad altro o publicato colle stampe verun scritto se non
sia prima visto ed esaminato da N. S. e da S. A. Elettore a tenore
della positiva sicurezza datane per lettera dallo stesso suffraganeo
al prefato S.E." Cifra to Bellisomi of October 8, 1780, Nunziat.
di Colonia 189A, Papal Secret Archives. Cf. *Cifra of October 18,
1780 {ibid. 772).
* *Klemens Wenzeslaus to Bellisomi, December 14, 1780 [ibid.
189A).
* *Beck to Bellisomi, January 19, 1781 (ibid.).
" *Id. to id., February 11, 1781 {ibid.). On other occasions he
was angry with his superior for submitting the commentary to the
universities {*id. to id., January 27 and February 6, 1781, ibid.).
26 HISTORY OF THE POPES
author was solely responsible for any errors it might contain
and that he submitted himself fully and completely to the
decision of the Pope.^
Hontheim sent his work to the Pope with a letter from
himself.2 Whether he really hoped that with this step he would
completely recover his good name, we have no means of
knowing, but the contents of the book could hardly have been
conducive to such an end.^ He certainly tried to justify the
thirty-eight propositions of his recantation,^ but his stand-
point was that of the Galhcan Church, even the Galhcan
propositions of 1682 and Bossuet's Defensio} There was no
longer any appearance of supporting the Protestant cause,
but every argument ended in favour of the claims of the State.
At this time, however, public interest was centred on the
Josephist reforms, the practical effects of which must have
seemed to be far more disturbing than Hontheim's learned
disquisitions. Nevertheless, as Hontheim had held out a pros-
pect of amending his work in accordance with the Papal
wishes Pius VI. asked the learned Gerdil to give his opinion on
Hontheim's latest publication. After devoting several months
to the subject, Gerdil produced a wholly admirable criticism of
all the thirty-eight propositions.^ Though it was not put to
1 The Elector's *letter to Hontheim of March 19, 1781, con-
taining this suggestion, was *sent by Beck to Bellisomi on
March 20, expressing the fear that the letter would arrive too
late, as the book might already be printed {ibid.).
2 Undated (Mejer, ^17 seq.). The apprehension with which
the book was awaited in Rome is seen in the *Cifra to Bellisomi
of March 21, 1781 (Nunziat. di Colonia, 772, loc. cit.). The arrival
of the book was reported in the *Cifra of April 18, 1781 (ibid.).
^ A letter from Rome dated December 26, 1781, informed
Hontheim that the commentary was not satisfactory. The same
information was conveyed in a letter of December 2, 1782 (v.
Marx, HI., 127 ; Katholik, 1891, IL, 27).
* Cf. Coup d'ceil sur le congres d'Ems, 119.
* For other subjects too most of the authorities cited were
Gallican and Josephist canonists.
® Animadversiones in Commentarium a J. Febronio in suam
HONTHEIM S LAST YEARS 27
any public use/ the Pope approved of it, and in a very detailed
Brief to the Archbishop he condemned the mixture of falsity
and truth in Hontheim's work. He cited numerous examples
of this, and instructed the Archbishop to administer a repri-
mand to Hontheim.^ In reply, however, the Archbishop
advised that Hontheim be dealt with as gently as possible, as
his Suffragan was incapable of undoing the scandal that had
been given. ^
Hontheim now ceased to play an active part in public life,
but for a long time yet he held fast to his opinion on the
inviolable rights of the State in its relations with the Church.^
After Beck had left the Elector's service in 1782 the latter
came under the influence of another cleric — of the same name,
Ludwig Joseph Beck, but of the Febronian way of thinking —
and reverted to his old courses, which were formulated at the
Congress of Ems. In November, 1786, Hontheim was made
privy to the records of the transactions by his Archbishop and
he even contributed to them a historical article on the annates.
In the years that followed Hontheim seems to have turned
his attention to graver matters. It was apparently a letter
from Abbot Martin Gerbert of St. Blasien,^ who had always
Retractationem editum, 1792. Also in Gerdil, Opere, XIII
(1808).
1 In the Monitum that preceded the edition of 1792, Gerdil
informed his readers that an unforeseen circumstance had made
it desirable to postpone the printing until a more favourable
time (Mejer, 196, n. i).
2 *Brief to Klemens Wenzeslaus, of October 13, 1781 [Epist.
A° VII., fo. 63&, Papal Secret Archives).
^ He thought it dangerous to inform Hontheim of the repri-
mand. See his *Ietters to Pius VI. of November 11, 1781, and to
Bellisomi of the same day (Nunziat. di Colonia 189A, Papal Secret
Archives ; reprinted in Coup d'ceil, 121 seqq., 128 seqq., and dated
the 17th). In these letters too Klemens Wenzeslaus did his
best to excuse Hontheim's ambiguous behaviour since his
retraction.
* Mejer, 203.
* Of February 10, 1788 (Wyttenbach-Muller. III.,
Appendix 60 ; cf. Mejer, 212 seq.).
28 HISTORY OF THE POPES
had a high opinion of him as a man as well as a scholar, that
moved him to make a frank confession of his faith. At any
rate he made the solemn deposition that though in this world
he had been noted for various writings that had given rise to
many hard words, nevertheless, as a Bishop, it was incumbent
on him to leave behind a testimony of his faith. Accordingly
he desired that after his death the abbot's letter be published
as this testimony.!
Resigned to his lot, the unhappy Suffragan departed this
life on September 2nd, 1790.2 He had composed his own
epitaph : " Tandem liber, tandem tutus, tandem asternus." ^
The opinion of one who lived during this period and beyond it
was that " no one shook the ancient hierarchic structure
erected on the Rhine by the Roman Curia so violently as
Hontheim ".* In the end this shaking helped to bury the old
Rhenish hierarchy for good and all.
(2)
The close connexion between the Febronian-episcopahst
movements in the Austrian hereditary lands and the reforming
intentions of enlightened despotism was due above all to such
men as Gerhard van Swieten. But that the two currents were
not necessarily intermingled is shown by the course of events
in the second largest Catholic State in the German Empire —
Bavaria.
Since the death of Max III. Joseph in 1777 the Wittelsbach
possessions had been in the hands of the Elector Karl Theodor,
of the Pfalz-Sulzbach hue. Already under the previous
government ^ the ecclesiastico-political principles then current
1 Wyttenbach-Muller, loc. cit.
* Mejer, 2o8 seqq.
^ On paper at any rate, Krufft had composed for him a more
magniloquent epitaph, which was censured by Gerdil in his
Animadversiones (Mejer, 216).
* NiKLAS VoGT, Rhein. Geschichten, IV., 215. Cf. Coup d'ceil,
115 seq., 120 note a; Mohler, Kirckengeschichte, III., 295;
GoYAU, L' Allemagne religieuse, I., 8.
^ For the various measures and plans, sec Pfeilschifter-
Baumeister, Salzburger Kongress, passim.
CONDITIONS IN BAVARIA 29
had been applied to Bavarian conditions, notably by the director
of the Spiritual Council, Peter von Osterwald. In a widely
circulated pamphlet ^ Osterwald, writing under the pseudonym
" Veremund von Lochstein ", had tried to show that ecclesias-
tical immunity was an unjustified impertinence, while a series
of so-called " reform decrees " issued in 1768-70 encroached on
the inner life of the Church. ^ The protests raised against them
by the Bishops of the country at the Congress of Salzburg ^
went practically unheard. The new Elector began his regime
with several reactionary measures, but in the ecclesiastico-
political sphere he kept to the course which was already set.
An exception was made in the case of the " Illuminati ",
a secret society of the " enlightened " founded at Ingolstadt
by Adam Weishaupt. As a result of the action he took against
it, its collapse was as rapid as its growth.*
^ Veremunds von Lochstein Grunde sowohl fur als wider die
Geistliche Immunitdt in zeitlichen Dingen, herausgegeben und mit
Anmerkungen begleitet von F. L. W. The work was condemned
in Rome on June 26, 1767 (Reusch, 946 ; cf. I. Gebele, Peter
von Osterwald, Munich, 1891).
2 KiRSCH, Kirchengeschichte, IV., i, 270 seqq., according to
Pfeilschifter-Baumeister ; Doberl, Entwickliingsgeschichte Bay-
ems, II., 254 seq.
3 Cf. our account, Vol. XXXVIII., 416.
* Cf. Manner, Bayern vor und in der Franzosischen Revolution,
6g seqq., especially iig seqq. ; also Le Forestier, Les Illumines
de Baviere et la Franc-Magonnerie allemande, Paris, 1915 ;
Doberl, loc. cit., II., 320 seq. When the Archbishop of Trier,
who was also Bishop of Augsburg, wanted to purge the Augsburg
cathedral chapter of the Illuminati, the Pope readily gave his
approval, in a *Brief of October 14, 1797, this sect, like the
Freemasons, to whom it belonged, being already excommunicated.
Epist. A° XXIII. , fo. ijoseqq.. Papal Secret Archives; Hist.-
pol. Blatter, CXXVII. (1901), 94 seqq., CLVIII. {1916), 711 seqq.,
CLXVII. (192 1), 677 seqq. That Karl Theodor, in spite of his
ecclesiastical policy, wanted to maintain friendly relations with
the Curia is shown by his behaviour on the occasion of Pius VI. 's
visit to Munich (see our account. Vol. XXXIX., 460), and of
the Elector's journey to Italy {cf. our account. Vol. XXXIX.,
30 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Like Joseph II. in Austria, the Bavarian rulers wanted the
ecclesiastical areas of administration to coincide with the civil
ones and thus to do away with the spiritual jurisdiction of
foreign Bishops over Bavarian subjects.^ In the Palatine and
Bavarian territories, which had been united in 1777, and to
which were added Jiilich and Berg on the Lower Rhine, there
were no less than eighteen Bishops and Archbishops taking
part in the pastoral administration, and not one of them resided
in the territories.^ Frequent attempts had been made in
previous centuries to disentangle these conditions, even so far
back as the concordat of 1583, and later Ferdinand Maria and
Max Emanuel wanted to erect a separate bishopric for the
country.^ At the end of the eighteenth century the situation
was more irksome than ever for, whereas formerly many of
these sees had been domestic bishoprics of the Wittelsbachs by
long-established custom, which in some cases had been going
on for centuries, since 1763 not a single member of the dynasty
had been honoured with the episcopal dignity.^
Karl Theodor's first endeavour was to have the foreign
Bishops set up vicariates general in the areas belonging to the
Bavarian Electorate. Those concerned, however, managed to
frustrate both this plan and the next one formed by the
104). Cf. Antici's reports to Seinsheim. of May 21 (arrival in
Rome, honourable reception), June 14 (reception by the King of
Naples), and July 5, 1783 (the homeward journey). State Archives,
Munich, Kasten schwarz 498/16. In 1789 the Pope sent his
bust (by Gerard i) to the Elector, and in return the Elector had
his bust made by the same sculptor {v. Brunner, Humor,
I., 311).
^ Fritz Endres, Errichiung der Miinchener Nuntiatur, 4 seqq.
2 Hist.-pol. Blatter, CLXIV., 533 seq.
* Endres, 5 seq.
* The following sees had been occupied by Wittelsbachs
Liege, 1581-1723 ; Cologne, 1583-1761 ; Freising, 1566-1763
Regensburg, 1579-1763. Cf. Hist.-pol. Blatter, CLXIV., 532
H. E. Feine, Die Besetzung der Reichshistiimer vom Westfdlischen
Frieden his Sdkularisation 1648-1803 (Stutz' Kirchenrechtl.
Abhandl. 97/98), Stuttgart, 1921, 319-326.
NEGOTIATIONS ABOUT THE NUNCIATURE 3I
Elector, namely to set up new bishoprics in the country.^
Consequently other measures were tried. The versatile Vice-
President of the Spiritual Council, Kasimir Haffelin, who for
many years after was to play several important roles in
Bavarian ecclesiastical politics, wanted the post of Apostolic
commissary to be created in Munich for himself,^ but the
Elector finally adopted another plan, which had already been
discussed in the past and now became a reality : the erection of
a Papal nunciature in Munich, which was to be of equal rank
with Vienna and Cologne and whose authority was to extend
over the whole Bavarian territory.
Negotiations on this project of a Bavarian nunciature were
undertaken at the beginning of 1784 by the Bavarian agent to
the Curia, the Marchese Tommaso Antici, who was also
charge d'affaires for the Archbishop of Cologne. His pre-
liminary inquiries promising eventual success, on April 11th
he wrote a long memorandum to his sovereign, setting out the
advantages of the plan.^ For the Holy See to have a special
representative in Munich, he wrote, was fully in accord with
the Elector's power and grandeur, whereas under actual
conditions the transaction of affairs was considerably delayed.
The cost of maintaining the nuncio would be borne by Bavaria,
it was true, but the tithes could be used for the purpose, and
part of them in any case had gone to the Bishops.
After this the matter was pursued with such vigour in Rome
that Pius VI. had no choice but to give way, unless he was to
offend the mighty Elector. On June 7th, 1784, after lengthy
negotiations, the Pope assented to the establishment of a new
nunciature at the Court of the Bavarian Elector.* A further
interval elapsed before a decision was reached regarding the
person of the new nuncio and an opportunity of making the
official announcement was provided by the consistory for the
^ ^Documents and an opinion on the subject in the State
Archives, Munich, Kasten blau 425/8, I., No. 2. Cf. Manner,
loc. cit., 113 seq.
2 Endres, 8.
' *Meinorandum in the State Archives, Munich, Kasten
schwarz 275/9. Cf. Endres, 12 seq. * Ibid., 14.
32 HISTORY OF THE POPES
next cardinalitial promotion. Finally this long-awaited con-
sistory took place on February 14th, 1785, and Monsignore
Cesare Zogho, Archbishop of Athens, was nominated as the
Papal representative in Munich. Some months were to pass,
however, before he set out for Bavaria.
Though this solution could not satisfy all the wishes of the
Wittelsbach Elector, he had at least gained one important
point : the spiritual jurisdiction over all his subjects now had
a centre, and a certain counterpoise against the influence of
the foreign Bishops seemed to have been secured. The Curia
too in the end was not wholly loath to agree to the com-
promise, especially as the friendship of so important a secular
prince might be of use to it, the more the other sovereigns,
such as those of Austria and the Latin countries, showed
themselves to be favourable to the episcopal movement.^
A serious breach had been made in the ranks of those members
of the imperial college of the German princes who aimed at
the establishment of national churches.
As was only to be expected, this innovation had the effect
of a beacon-fire on the Febronian party in the German
episcopate and roused them to retahation. To the Rhenish
archbishoprics the jurisdiction of the nunciature tribunals had
long been a stumbling-block, and its removal had been one of
the Desiderata put forward at the Congress of Coblenz in 1769.2
At that time the Electors failed to receive the support from
Joseph II. that they had expected, he having to consider the
wishes of his mother, Maria Theresa. Consequently the plans
of the German episcopalists had to remain in abeyance for
a time,^ but now this fresh " curialistic pretension " gave
them the excuse for further action.
^ Cf. ScHOTTE, Zur Geschichte des Eniser Kongresses, in Hist.
Jahrbuch, XXXV. (191 4), 91.
* Cf. our account. Vol. XXXVIII., 413, and Jakob Wille,
August Graf von Limhurg-Stirwm, Furstbischof von Speyer
(Neujahrsblatter der bad. hist. Kommission), Heidelberg, 191 3.
For the exertions made by Mainz until 1772, cf. Hohler, 42 seqq.
^ For their fruitless exertions, v. Nottarp in Theologie und
Glaube, VII. (1915), 271 seq.
THE NUNCIATURE OPPOSED 33
The recalcitrants were headed by the Elector of Mainz,
Archbishop Friedrich Karl Joseph von Erthal,^ who had
originally been elected by a conservative group, but with his
worldly-wise character and " enlightened " principles he soon
changed his course for one of increasing friendliness towards
Prussia. He was loyally supported by his Suffragan Heimes,^
who, on account of his ambitious designs, was as much disliked
by his fellow-Bishops as by the Imperial Court. In the
controversies that now ensued the staunchest ally of these two
prelates was the Metropolitan whose power was most restricted
by the newly-founded nunciature, Hieronymus, Count von
Colloredo, Archbishop of Salzburg, ^ a friend of " enlighten-
ment " who was most skilful in advancing his Josephist ideas.
On March 3rd, 178'5, Colloredo suggested to his Mainz
colleague a coalition of all the prelates affected by the newly
erected nunciature.^ The reply this evoked from Erthal, who
was also in charge of the diocese of Worms, which extended
into the Palatinate, was remarkable. If the nuncio expected in
Munich was only a diplomatic representative of the Holy
Father, there could be no objection to the appointment ; but
if he came furnished with spiritual faculties it would conflict
with the irreducible and inalienable rights of the episcopal
authority instituted by Christ, and it would have to be
resisted. While they were agreeing on the course to be
pursued,^ the two prelates sought for associates among their
1 Cf. Hist.-pol. Blatter, CLXII. (1921), 677 seqq. ; Endres,
29 seqq. ; Allg. Deutsche Biogr., VII., 552 seqq.
2 Ibid., XL, 330 seq.
^ He was the son of the Imperial Vice-Chancellor (ibid., IV.,
416) ; J. Mack, Die Reform- u. Aufkldrungsbestrebungen im
Erzstift Salzburg unter Erzbischof Hieronymus v. Colloredo, Munich,
1912. Colloredo was described by the nuncio Delia Genga as
haughty and distant ; cf. his report of February 16, 1802, in the
Hist.-pol. Blatter, CLIII. (1914), 194, 203.
* Endres, 32.
^ Mainz's envoy to the Diet was instructed to get into touch
with the Bishops whose dioceses lay in Bavaria, through their
charges d'affaires there, with the object of making a joint
VOL. XL. D
34 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Suffragans, but they were not immediately successful. Baron
Ludwig Joseph von Welden, Bishop of Freising, whose
competence extended to the Bavarian capital, was almost alone
in wholeheartedly supporting the proposed plan of action.
Eichstatt's reply might also be considered satisfactory, but
the Bishops of Chiemsee, Regensburg, and Passau, and the
Archbishops of Cologne and Trier were unwiUing to commit
themselves.^ On the other hand, from now onwards all the
measures taken by the episcopalists, together with their
obstructive propaganda, were accompanied by a loud voice of
uncompromising contradiction, that of the Bishop of Speyer,
Count von Limburg-Stirum,^ whose opposition to the Mainz
Metropolitan was well known and who upheld the free,
unrestricted exercise of the Papal jurisdiction in the cases
reserved to it.
In the first days of May, 1785, the Courts of Mainz, Salzburg,
and Freising sent an inquiry, through their agents, to the
Curia, regarding the capacity in which the chosen representa-
tive of the Holy See was coming to Munich, and they drew
attention in their memoranda to the serious misgivings that
would be caused if the representation were armed with
jurisdictional faculties. In a few days they received the terse
reply that the nuncio to Munich would be invested with the
same rights and powers as those exercised by the nuncio to
Cologne.^
representation to the Elector. Cf. *Lerchenfeld to Karl Theodor,
August 13, 1785 (State Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz.
393/1)-
1 Endres, 33 seqq. Klemens Wenzeslaus had written to Karl
Theodor on June 27, 1785, asking how much truth there was in
the rumours about the new nunciature. On July 12, the Elector
had given him the required information in a poHte but terse
manner. Both *letters, loc. cit., Ka§ten schwarz 393/1.
* Cf. above, p. 7.
* Endres, 37 seqq. Texts of the inquiries from Salzburg and
Freising and the Papal replies in Pragmatische u. aktenmdssige
Geschichte der zu Miinchen neu errichteten Nuntiatiir, Frankfurt
& Leipzig, 1787, Anhang 2-8. On August 13, 1785, the Bavarian
MEMORANDA OF THE GERMAN PRELATES 35
The brevity with which it dealt with this inquiry showed that
Rome was not by any means inchned to take instructions from
others on how to appoint its legates ; nevertheless, the three
prelates were not deterred by this initial rebuff. The agents
for Mainz and Salzburg were told to draw up and present
further memoranda in far sterner language, while the Arch-
bishop of Mainz again invited his Suffragans to co-operate.
Of the other German prelates the Bishops of Bamberg and
Wiirzburg and of Eichstatt agreed to make inquiries couched
in similar language, as did also the Elector Klemens Wenzes-
laus, the Ordinary of Augsburg and Trier, a man of notoriously
weak and vacillating character.^
The memorials from Salzburg and Freising arrived in Rome
at the beginning of August 1785 and were not deemed worthy
of a reply by Pius VI. On July 11th, however, he had sent
another brief and firm response to the Elector of Mainz,
strongly denying the accusations that the spiritual jurisdiction
of the nuncios was presumptuous, that it infringed the con-
cordats and that it was prejudicial to the Bishops.^ At the
same time Garampi, the nuncio to Vienna, was asked to use
his influence with the Suffragans of the refractory Metro-
politans and make them more friendly towards Rome.^
Minister Vieregg *complained about this {loc. cit., Kasten schwarz
393/1) to Antici, who on May 11, 1785, had *sent Karl Theodor
the three letters of complaint together with the Papal reply and a
letter from the Pro-Secretary of State {ibid., 393/9).
^ Endres, 39 seq. Later the nuncio Delia Genga also said
that the Elector was easily influenced ; v. his report of February 16,
1802, in the Hist.-pol. Blatter, CLIIL (1914), 191 seq., 200.
2 Endres, 45 seq.
^ Garampi's successes, ibid. 53 seq. As early as April 16, 1785,
Garampi had *\\Titten to Bishop Zeil of Chiemsee, at Salzburg,
that the new nunciature was really no innovation at all, but only
a continuation of the one at Graz, so that, if anyone had cause
for complaint, it was not the Bishops but the other nuncios, and
they had not complained. In spite of several other *letters from
Garampi on the subject (for the good relations that existed
between the two, v. Endres, 53 seq.) Bishop Zeil afterwards
informed his Metropolitan CoUoredo of Salzburg of his entry into
36 HISTORY OF THE POPES
The measures adopted by the German prelates having thus
apparently been rendered abortive from the very start by the
unshakable principles of Christ's vicar, they had to resort to
another expedient : to enlist the aid of the German emperor
as their mediator and spokesman in Rome. For this they reUed
chiefly on the co-operation of the Archbishop of Cologne,
Maximilian Franz Joseph, Archduke of Austria.^ He was the
youngest brother of the emperor and fully agreed with his
views on the Church.
MaximiHan Franz, having had some friction with Bellisomi,
the nuncio to Cologne, was ill-disposed towards the Curia and
now pressed for the aboUtion of all the nunciature tribunals in
Germany. On March 11th, 1785, he had made a written
complaint to the Pope about the improper delay of the
nunciature in dealing with appeals and he had asked for
Papally approved Judices in partibus, a request that had
already been made by German Bishops on several previous
occasions.2 BelHsomi viewed the application as an attack on
his office and entered into negotiations to settle the affair.
The Roman Curia also showed an accommodating attitude by
agreeing to certain cases of appeal being entrusted directly by
Rome or through the nuncio to high-ranking clerics in the
archdiocese. But it definitely refused to grant a general
mandate for all cases, as was desired. Finally, when at an
audience granted to the agent Antici, Pius VI. refused to make
the group of the four Archbishops (*Ietters to Colloredo of
September 15, 1786, January 25 and March 9, 1787 ; State
Archives, Munich, Salzburg Erzstift. 263). In his *letter of
August 27, 1785, to Caprara, Garampi's successor as nuncio to
Vienna, the Secretary of State Boncompagni spoke of the Pope's
joy and his hope that he would continue to work for the same
object, faithful to the " informazioni " of his predecessor. Nunziat.
di Germania, 683, Papal Secret Archives.
1 Allg. Deutsche Biogr., XXL, sOseqq. ; cf. also M. Braubach,
Das Domkapitel zu Miinster und die Koadjutorwahl des Erzherzogs
Maximilian 1780 in Historische Aufsdtze, Festschrift fiir Alois
Schulte, 1927, 239 seqq.
* Endres, 56.
JOSEPH II. AND THE GERMAN METROPOLITANS 37
any further concessions, Maximilian Franz, suppressing all his
previous scruples, cast in his lot entirely with the party led by
the Elector of Mainz, a step which induced his cousin, the
Archbishop of Trier, to work for a still stronger coalition.^
Their group thus strengthened, the four Metropolitans
could enter the next stage of the controversy about the
German nunciature with greater assurance. This second stage
was brought about by their appeal to the Imperial Court.
Mainz and Salzburg wrote officially to Vienna on September
22nd and October 4th, 1785, while Maximihan Franz went
there in person to present to his imperial brother his own
petition and that of the Elector of Trier.^ Erthal's memorial ^
began with a protest against the resolution of the Roman Curia
to set up a new nunciature in Munich, without the previous
knowledge of the emperor, the empire, or the episcopate.
There had never been any suspicion of it and it was causing
universal disquiet. He proceeded to relate the repeated but
fruitless efforts he had made in Rome, marshalled all the
reasons of a legal, theoretical, and practical nature against
the " unconstitutional proceedings of the nunciature tribu-
nals ", and finally besought the emperor as the " supreme
patron and protector of the German Church " to oppose in
Rome the mission of the new legate or at least to demand the
restriction of his powers to purely diplomatic duties.
Joseph II. did not agree to the request of the German
Metropohtans with the readiness they probably expected, and
which, indeed, considering the almost complete unanimity of
their views would have been quite understandable. There
were, however, a number of misgivings which may have
caused him to hold his hand. Firstly, he could hardly support
a movement whose leader, the Elector of Mainz, was about to
join the anti-imperial Prussian league of princes. Secondly,
the Metropolitans had on this occasion acted without their
1 Ibid., 57 seqq.
2 Ibid., 63.
^ Printed in Hohler, Arnoldis Tagebuch, 275 seqq., and
Pragmatische Geschichte, etc., loc. cit., 8 seqq.
38 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Suffragans in order to preserve the appearance of a general
movement, but to co-operate with the Metropolitans alone
might estrange the rest of the German Bishops and seriously
endanger the success of the Josephist reforms. Lastly, Joseph
II. may possibly have been unwiUing to add to the material
for conflict that already existed between himself and the
Curia.
It is true, however, that the reply sent to Mainz on October
12th, 1785, in the form of an imperial rescript,^ was in the
principles it expressed, entirely in agreement with the peti-
tioners. The emperor, it said, would work for the preservation
and restoration of the original rights of the Bishops and would
also present the case to Rome. " I therefore recognize the
Papal nuncios only as Papal emissaries competent to deal with
poUtical matters and those with which the Pope is directly
concerned as supreme head of the Church. I cannot, however,
allow these nuncios to exercise jurisdiction in spiritual affairs
nor allow them a judicature which is not within the com-
petence of, and cannot be conceded to, the Papal nuncio in
Cologne, nor the one here in Vienna, nor any other that may
come in the future into the territory of the German empire."
Up to this point, in the main, the petitioners had reason to
be satisfied with the document,^ but in the last part of it the
emperor, probably not without intention, touched on a deUcate
spot. That the rights they claimed might be preserved, he
urged the Metropolitans to come to an understanding with
their Suffragans and the exempt Bishops and to collect their
grievances, against Rome. The first of these conditions may
have served the Archbishops as a legitimation of the Congress
of Ems, but the failure to obtain the agreement of all the
Bishops brought the whole dispute about the nunciature to
an inglorious end.
1 HoHLER, loc. cit., 277 seqq. ; Stigloher, 263 seqq. ; Prag-
matische Geschichte, loc. cit., 13 seqq.
^ Some additions made to the text resulted in internal con-
tradictions, noted by Eni>res (66). It is difficult to reconcile the
abolition of the nunciatures with the guaranteeing of the eccles-
iastical organization that had been " observed for centuries ".
THE IMPERIAL RESCRIPT 39
The imperial rescript, which was to figure very prominently
in the coming negotiations and in the copious publications of
the time/ was hailed with the greatest joy by the Court of
Mainz. The Suffragan Heimes urged that the favourable
opportunity be seized to press on with further action. At this
juncture the resistance of the other Suffragans was not
foreseen. On October 30th the Elector Friedrich Karl von
Erthal sent a circular letter to the Bishops of his province,
asking them to inform him of any cases of interference or
impropriety on the part of the Curia.^ The MetropoHtan
authorities of Salzburg, who took a more sober view of the
situation, also asked the subordinate dioceses for similar
information and tried to justify the pecuhar coahtion of the
four Archbishops. The same steps were then taken by Cologne
and Trier. At the same time the four Metropohtans forbade
any recourse to the existing German nunciatures or, following
the example of Mainz, made it a condition that it should
first be given the archiepiscopal assent.^
But, contrary to expectation, many of the Bishops dechned
to co-operate. As before, it was the Bishop of Freising who
showed the greatest ardour in espousing the cause of the
quadruple alliance, and again it was Speyer that headed the
opposing party.
Pius VI. was deeply concerned when Cardinal Herzan, on
November 7th, had to inform him of the imperial rescript and
its decree abolishing the tribunals of the German nunciatures.
The Pope ^ defended the erection of the nunciature at Munich
as being solely an adjustment in respect of personnel and
locality within the bounds of the existing law, though he made
no effort to conceal the grief that the step would cost him.
Knowing that no one's right had been infringed, he insisted as
1 The Bavarian envoy to the Diet at Regensburg regularly-
sent the Elector all the pamphlets he could get hold of. They
are now to hand as enclosures in his reports in the State Archives,
Munich.
2 Endres, 68 seq.
3 Ibid., 6g seqq.
* Ibid., TJ.
40 HISTORY OF THE POPES
firmly as before that he could not make any more concessions.
He followed this up by again requesting the nuncios to do their
best to see that the rights of the Holy See in Germany were
understood and appreciated. The Pope could still rely on the
German princes, especially Bavaria, and it was doubtful
whether the imperial rescript, which had not been ratified by
the diet, was merely an expression of opinion or was actually
a law. In a letter to the Prince Bishop of Freising ^ Pius VI.
referred to this uncertainty and pointed out that even if it was
a law, every Cathohc, and still more every Bishop, would
have to oppose it and value more highly the ecclesiastical
regulations on the subject, for here was a case of a secular power
deciding illegally on an ecclesiastical question.
In the days that followed, Karl Theodor's composure must
have increased the confidence of the Holy Father. ^ Dis-
regarding the rescript, the Bavarian government insisted on
ZogUo's coming to Munich as soon as possible. His departure,
however, was still delayed, to his regret, by .unfavourable
weather, financial difficulties, and ill health.^ The Munich
Minister of State, von Vieregg, wrote that on the nuncio's
1 On October i8, 1786, before the Punctation of Ems had
been announced (text in Stigloher, 292 seqq. ; *copy in the
State Archives in Munich, Kasten schwarz 393/9 ,* Epist., A° XII.,
fos. 144, 152, Papal Secret Archives ; translation in P. P. Wolf,
Geschichte der rom.-kath. Kirche, IV., 208-223). The Prag-
matische und aktenmdssige Geschichte reproduces the Latin text
of the Brief (appendix, pp. 19 seqq.) and examines it sentence by
sentence in the endeavour to prove that it is spurious (pp. 26 seqq.).
To show that there was no reason to doubt the legal force of the
imperial rescript, the author argues that it was not a question of a
new law, but an announcement of the imperial will for the stricter
enforcement of old laws (pp. 74 seg.). The canonistic authority
for this argument, as so often in the controversial literature of the
time, was Febronius.
2 Cf. the Pope's commendation of the Elector in Wolf, loc. cit.,
219.
3 Boncompagni *reported to Caprara on October 12, 1785,
that Zoglio had been asked to hasten his preparations for depar-
ture (Nunziat. di Germania, 684-685, Papal Secret Archives).
THE NUNCIO S ARRIVAL IN MUNICH 4I
arrival everything else would fall into place and the nuncio
would be able to exercise complete jurisdiction in the usual
manner.! ^^ the end of the year these representations had to
be renewed, and then there was a further delay of some few
months before they were finally put into effect.^ Zoglio arrived
in Munich on May 20th, 1786,^ and after he had presented his
Brief of recommendation ^ to the Elector, the Government, on
May 26th, announced the erection of the nunciature to all
Bavarian subjects and commended them to bring before it all
matters which had hitherto been dealt with by the nuncios to
Cologne, Vienna, or Lucerne. ^ By most of the Bishops in his
new jurisdictional area Zoglio was acknowledged only with
far-reaching reservations, reference being made even to the
imperial rescript. This attitude of theirs was censured by
Pius VI. in unmistakable language.^
In Cologne too, about this time, there was a change of
nuncios that aroused unusual interest. Bellisomi having been
called to Lisbon, a suitable successor had to be found for this
unenviable post. After some difficulty Pius VI. finally
appointed Bartolommeo Pacca nuncio to Cologne on May 27th,
1 Endres, 78.
2 *Antici wrote to Vieregg on January 14, 1786, that Zoglio
was hurrying to Munich, and *on February 4, 1786, that he had
been gone for over a month but had sent no word of himself.
(State Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz 105/17).
3 * Vieregg to Antici on May 27, 1786 (ibid.), where also there
is a reference to the audience of May 22. Cf. Endres, 80 seq.,
83. A *dispaccio for ZogHo, dated from Rome, June 3, 1786,
brought news of the Pope's joy and generous praise for the
Elector (copy loc. cit., Kasten schwarz 507/2).
* *Of December 10, 1785. Original ihid. 393/1. Printed in
Pragmatische Geschichie, loc. cit. 17 ; Stigloher, 265. Karl
Theodor's *letter of thanks to the Pope, of May 23, 1786, in the
State Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz 393 /i . Further relevant
documents, ibid., 507/16.
^ Copy of the decree issued by the Electoral Ecclesiastical
Chancery ibid., Staatsverwaltung, 3221, No. 74.
« Cf. the above-mentioned Brief to Freising of October 18,
1786, and Endres, 87 seq.
42 HISTORY OF THE POPES
1785. Pacca was a young man, only twenty-eight years old,
but he was competent and careful, and his way of life was
irreproachable.^ For various reasons his departure had to be
postponed,^ so that nearly a year passed before he finally set
out, on May 6th, 1786. After a journey delayed by bouts of
sickness, he reached Bonn on June 9th.^ His reception here
was far from cordial. The Archbishop refused to recognize him
unless he renounced his jurisdiction. Pacca could not think of
doing this and chose rather to ignore him. Archbishop and
brother of the emperor though he was. Meanwhile the nuncio's
relations with the other prelates in his area gradually became
tolerable.^
^ For Pacca and his family, v. A. Professione, Antonio
Felice Zondadari e Bartolommeo Pacca, Milano, 1899, 40.
2 Endres, 81 seq. Pacca relates the story of his appointment
as nuncio in his Memorie storiche . . . sid di lui soggiorno in
Germania . . ., Roma, 1832, 9-10.
' For his indisposition, journey, and arrival in Germany,
V. his Memorie, 13 seqq., 23 seqq. ; Professione, loc. cit., 41.
* Endres, 90 seq. ; Pacca, loc. cit., 23 seqq. ; Professione,
loc. cit., 42, and Pacca's *" Lettere al padre " of June 22 and 29 and
October 19, 1786, in the Archiepiscopal Archives at Benevento.
CHAPTER II.
The Congress of Ems and its Aftermath — Disturbances
IN the Austrian Netherlands — Death of Joseph II.
— His Successors' Attitude towards the Church.
(1)
In pursuance of the imperial rescript and in continuation of
the Congress of Coblenz, of 1769, the Rhenish Electors had
agreed among themselves to hold another meeting of their
representatives, in which the Archbishop of Salzburg was also
to take part.^ Hieronymus von CoUoredo had in any case
intended to travel to the Netherlands and he would thus be
able to hold his Court in the vicinity of the selected meeting-
place in the Rhineland and by rapid communication with his
representative there follow the course of the negotiations.
Mainz and Salzburg on the one hand, and Cologne and Trier
on the other, then got ready their proposals for the congress,
which were to be only of a provisional nature until the four
prelates had been joined by the rest of the German episcopate.
There was some difficulty in choosing a suitable meeting-place,
especially as this had to be done without prejudice to any of
the participants and attention had to be paid to the best postal
connexions with the archiepiscopal residences. Mainz
proposed Frankfurt or Worms, while Cologne and Trier were
more in favour of Coblenz. After some deliberation the list of
possible places was reduced to Limburg and Ems. At Heimes'
suggestion the latter, in view of its character of a health-resort,
was finally selected as most likely to conceal the purpose of
the meeting, which for the time being was to be kept secret.^
In Vienna these preparations were observed with mixed
feelings. As the conference might prove to be of extreme
importance for the future of the German Church, the imperial
1 HoHLER, 49 seq. ^ Ibid., 55 ; Endres, 91 seqq.
43
44 HISTORY OF THE POPES
government found it necessary to obtain betimes, in spite of
the inevitable wearisome negotiations it entailed, solemn
promises from Cologne, Trier, and Salzburg that nothing
detrimental to the imperial name and its rights would be
discussed or determined. Vienna's distrust of the ambitious
policy of Mainz proved to be not entirely unjustified.^
The four Metropolitans having spent rather more than the
first half of the year 1786 in preparatory negotiations, their
representatives met at last at the " Darmstadter Hof " at
Ems on the evening of July 24th. Mainz was represented by
the Suffragan Bishop Heimes in person,^ an indication of the
importance attributed to the conference by this dignitary,
who had long since wrested from his Archbishop the adminis-
tration of ecclesiastico-political affairs in the diocese. The
oldest member of the group was Tautphoeus, the deputy for
Cologne, former Vicar General of Miinster. He was seventy
years old and hard of hearing. The Salzburg representative,
Consistorial Councillor Bonicke, was of more consequence,
though his vacillating attitude soon lost him the confidence
of Heimes. Trier was represented by Vicar General Ludwig
Joseph Beck, to whom his superior had hitherto entrusted the
conduct of all business connected with the nunciature dispute.
In certain respects the instructions given to these negotiators
had been drawn up with considerable circumspection. Thus
the representative of Trier had been strictly enjoined ^ not
to agree to anything that might mean a privilege for Mainz or
might impair the respect due to the Pope. He was to be
scrupulously careful to uphold the hierarchic system and to
avoid giving the other Bishops any reasonable cause for
complaint. Above all, no alliance against other Powers was to
be entered into nor were complaints to be voiced against the
1 Cf. ScHOTTE in the Hist. Jahrbuch, XXXV. (1914). 102.
Endres gives a full account of the assurances desired by Vienna.
^ Cf. Arnoldi's character-sketch in his report of July 24, 1786
(HoHLER, 63 seqq.) ; plans and views of the " Darmstadter
Hof " ibid.
8 Printed version of his instruction of July 21, 1786, ibid.
59 seqq. ; his credentials, in Latin and German, ibid., 61 seq.
PREPARATION FOR THE CONGRESS 45
emperor or other sovereigns. But with all this, the object of
the congress as defined in Beck's authority, which was made
out at the same time, was entirely episcopalist in its purport :
" to restore the original rights of the Archbishops and Bishops,
after previous consultation, and to have them put into
practice." The other Courts also carried out the necessary
preliminary work by means of long-winded discussions and
memoranda, in which, along with the actual dispute about the
nunciature, the Coblenz Desiderata of 1769 played the most
prominent part.
As the proceedings at Ems were to be regarded as secret,
no official protocol was to be taken and, in particular, any
differences that might arise were not to be committed to
writing ; only the resolutions that were arrived at were put
down in due form day by day. The Trier Secretary Arnoldi,
however, was instructed to make a secret record of the
proceedings in a room adjoining that of the conference.^
Having agreed on their programme on July 25th, the next
day the delegates began discussions on complaints against the
Papal Curia. In many cases the gravamina of 1769 served as
a basis for these talks, which covered all the episcopal rights
which Rome was alleged to have impaired. It was agreed to
reject all cases of Papal reservation, all Papal dispensations,
all nuncios and Papal notaries, all unilateral resolutions of
Congregations, and all processus informativi carried out by
nuncios. The annates and pallium moneys were to be reduced
in accordance with long-standing promises, and every diocese
was to have its own courts of appeal. Other points discussed
were resignations and the accumulation of benefices resulting
from Roman presentations. Working speedily, the delegates
dealt with aU the subject-matter of the gravamina by July
28th. The various demands they proposed were submitted for
^ His account of the proceedings has been edited by Hohler
(67 seqq.), who had before him the original from the episcopal
archives at Limburg. The sources given by Hohler were used
by A. CouLiN in his article " Dcr Emser Kongress des Jahres
1786 " in the Deutsche Zeitschrift fiir Kirchenrecht, vol. 47 (vol. 25
in the 3rd series), 191 7, i seqq.
46 HISTORY OF THE POPES
approval to their Courts, which made several alterations in
them.
In addition, the four Archbishops wanted to use this
opportunity to pave the way for an internal reform of ecclesias-
tical Ufe according to modem notions, to be carried out by
a uniform procedure in all four archdioceses. For these
questions of disciphne, as for the first part of the talks. Beck,
the delegate from Trier, had to provide the preliminary drafts
as material for debate.^ It is significant that the circular letter
written to his Bishops by the Grand Duke of Tuscany was
also taken into consideration. ^ Beck's proposals were accepted
in the main and were collected together in a reforming decree.^
These agreements were not to be brought to the knowledge of
the pubUc but were to serve the other Bishops as a model of
pastoral organization in harmony with the times. According
to the agreed decree, all exemptions from episcopal jurisdiction
were abolished and new regulations were made for the training
and employment of the parochial clergy. Other articles
provided for the cleansing of divine service from all " super-
stitious objects and abuses ", such as benedictions, con-
fraternities, processions, and the decoration of churches and
altars. A further set of articles regulated in detail the whole
of religious Ufe, including the daily regime of abbeys, nun-
neries, and convents.
From August 8th to 16th the congress was suspended while
some of the representatives returned to their seats of govern-
ment to deliberate on the punctations laid down during the
first part of the negotiations. A difference of opinion between
Mainz and Cologne on the questions of cehbacy and abstinence
had hindered the work * and almost threatened to wreck the
1 Beck used for the purpose some notes in Latin that he had
made before the congress opened (pubhshed by Hohler,
281 seqq.).
* Amoldi's diary for July 31, ibid., 109 seq.
' Text, ibid., 92-106.
* Cf. especially Beck's letter to Klemens Wenzeslaus, of
August 5, 1786 [ibid., 134 seq.) ; Schotte in the Hist. Jahrbuch.
XXXV., 97 seq.
THE RESULTS OF THE CONGRESS 47
whole undertaking. Back in Trier Beck wrote to his secretary
at Ems ^ " The end of the congress will be ignominy as a
reward for us and a triumph for the Romans." In Trier too
there was an unpleasant incident. When the proposal made at
Ems that overworked priests should be dispensed from
saying the breviary was submitted to Klemens Wenzeslaus
he rejected it with scorn remarking that no doubt the object
of it was " to enable the reverend gentlemen to have an extra
hour a day for bibbing and gaming ". Beck, deeming that his
own honour and that of all the clergy of Trier had been
impugned, felt it his duty to relinquish his appointment as
representative at the Congress of Ems unless his Archbishop
expressed to him a better opinion of the diocesan clergy. He
accordingly tendered his resignation to the Elector on August
12th,2 as the result of which Klemens Wenzeslaus wrote
him a personal letter in which he withdrew the insulting
references and did his best to mollify his indignant Vicar
General.^
The last of the archiepiscopal governments to deliver its
finding on the Ems proposals was that of Cologne, which had
been awaited with anxiety. It accepted the punctation on the
restoration of episcopal rights while rejecting the proposed
reform of ecclesiastical discipline. The discussions at Ems
could therefore be resumed and this was done on August 18th.
The main task now was to pay regard to the alterations
suggested by the different Courts and to the observations they
had made and to reconcile them one with the other. This
had to be done with all possible speed as the emperor wanted
to be apprised of the Ems resolutions by the beginning of the
following month at the latest.
After a series of discussions, many of which were very
lively, an agreement was finally arrived at. Between Sep-
tember 3rd and 8th four letters, all of similar import, were
addressed to Joseph II. by the Powers taking part in the
* On August II, 1785 (HoHLER, 140).
2 Text of the letter, ibid., 141 seqq.
* Ibid., 144.
48 HISTORY OF THE POPES
congress.^ They were accompanied by the punctation agreed
upon at Ems in pursuance of the imperial commission, and the
wish was expressed that the emperor, as the advocate of the
German Church, should support the demands in Rome or, if
no satisfaction was obtained there by amicable methods, that
he should summon a German national council " to free the
German nation at long last from all forms of oppression ". If
this course too proved ineffectual, the petitioners were
prepared to bring the questions before the German Diet and
to solve them satisfactorily in a lawful way.
Every word of the Ems Punctation ^ betrayed its close
connexion with the principles of Febronianism ^ and Joseph-
ism. All the demands, whether based on traditional gravamina
or on recent developments, were assembled in a clear and
concise manner, the episcopal authority being referred
to as the only one to have any lawful existence within the
diocese.
In the introduction the punctators cited the imperial
request contained in the rescript of October 12th, 1785, and
their sense of responsibility to the German Church, but at the
same time they declared their readiness to uphold the primacy
of the Pope, even in the matter of jurisdiction, though they
felt themselves obliged to draw a definite distinction between
the essential rights of the Pope and those he had allegedly
usurped. The latter, having originated in the spurious decretals
of pseudo-Isidore, were henceforth to be abolished.
1 Dated from Salzburg on September 3, 1786, Briihl on the
7th, Schonbornslust and Aschaffenburg on the 8th [ibid., 168 seq.
and Stigloher, 2j8 seqq.). According to Endres (hi, n. i)
the 8th should be corrected to the loth, but the first date is found
in the imperial reply (Stigloher, 290 ; Hohler, 190).
* Text, ibid., 171-183 ; Stigloher, 266-278 ; Wolf, loc. cit.,
178 seqq. Coulin (loc. cit., 17 seqq.) examines the contents
article by article, giving especial attention to the steps of the
development of each and to the alterations made by the Courts
of the ecclesiastical principalities.
* Cf. also Archiv fiir kath. Kirchenrecht, LXXXIIL, 647 seq.
THE EMS PUNCTATION 49
There followed, in twenty-two articles, the various demands
that were held to arise from the episcopal authority : the
subordination of all residents in the diocese to the Bishop ;
the abolition of all direct appeals to Rome and of all exemp-
tions ; the severance of the bond with foreign Generals of
religious Orders ; the extension of the episcopal authority of
dispensation to all injunctions of abstinence, matrimonial
impediments, and religious vows ; the right to alter pious
foundations ; removal of the quinquennial faculties ; the
invaUdity of all Papal Briefs and unilateral resolutions of
Congregations lacking episcopal ratification ; the aboUtion of
the nunciature tribunals and notariates apostolic. The serious
accusation was made that in questions of dispensation con-
nected with the accumulation of benefices Rome had " violated
in various ways " the concordat of Bale. Wherefore the right
of presentation to benefices was vested in the Bishop alone,
unrestricted by Papal reservations or coadjutorships or
resignations in favour of others. In the conferment of benefices
special consideration was to be given to the age and worthiness
of the recipients. The same absence of restriction was to apply
in cases of appointment to the higher offices in cathedral and
collegiate churches.
Other articles of the Ems resolutions were directed against
delay in ordination after the conferment of benefices, against
the presentation of foreigners to German benefices, and against
the so-called " Papal months ". In future the processus
iiiformativus was to be carried out by the Ordinaries or
neighbouring Bishops, with the relaxation for suffragan
Bishops of the necessary conditions, the abolition of the
customary Papal provisos, and the alteration of the old form of
oath, which lowered the Bishops to the rank of vassals.
Within two years the annates and pallium moneys were to
be reduced by a national council or the imperial Diet. In
future, as a court of third instance over the diocesan and
metropolitan courts, there should be only national judices in
partihus, or, better still, new courts attached to provincial
synods.
In the final paragraph of the document it was stated that
50 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the Bishops could only guarantee a reform of ecclesiastical hfe
and discipline after the restoration of all these " rights which
were due to them ". The emperor was asked to see to it that
the council that had already been promised in the interim
concordat of Aschaffenburg was brought into existence, on a
national basis, within two years.
Naturally much depended on what the emperor thought of
these demands. At first sight it looked as if they were in
complete conformity with the principles of the Austrian
variety, of Josephism and would therefore be sure of having
the imperial protection, but a closer inspection revealed an
important difference. In the opinion of the Josephist experts
on ecclesiastico-political jurisdiction, almost all the rights in
the punctations claimed by the Bishops for themselves on
divine authority belonged to the omnipotent State, as inahen-
able rights, as it was also the duty of the State to take in hand
the pastoral care of its subjects. It was only in the negation
and rejection of the alleged usurpations of power by the
Papacy that the two movements were in accord. But the
proposed extension of episcopal authority was not to be borne
by so absolutist a monarch as Joseph II.
It was not surprising, therefore, that the emperor's reply,
though containing an abundance of assurances couched in
general terms, was, on the whole, guarded and evasive.
Chancellor Kaunitz seems to have pointed out to him the
serious issues of principle involved and to have convinced him
of the plausibility of such misgivings. The emperor also agreed
to another of Kaunitz's suggestions, that the petitioners be
asked to come to a general agreement with the rest of the
German hierarchy, a request which seemed impossible of
fulfilment. Some time previously, as it happened, the Bishop
of Speyer, having learnt of the Ems punctations through an
indiscretion of the " Hamburger Journal ", had sent a sharply-
worded protest to the imperial court against the presumably
intentional exclusion of the German Bishops from deliberations
of such vital importance, and in so doing he had given expres-
sion to the dissatisfaction felt by several Suffragans at the
prospect of the metropoUtan authority increasing its power
THE IMPERIAL REPLY 51
without reference to others.^ Actually the imperial reply of
November 16th, 1786,2 expressed the extreme desirability of
extending the Austrian measures of reform to the whole of
Germany and promised the four Metropolitans every assistance
as soon as " the necessary closer agreement had been taken in
hand by means of confidential negotiations " with the Suffra-
gans and exempt Bishops on the one hand and the com-
petent secular rulers on the other.
This request was complied with by the Archbishops, who
now acquainted their Suffragans with the Ems negotiations
and invited their support. The most wholehearted approval
of the episcopalist aims came from the prelates of the Salzburg
province, though some of them expressed doubts about the
practicability of the punctation.^ The only answers that were
entirely negative were those of Speyer and Liege,^ while a
number of other Bishops preferred to wait on events.
The indecision of some of the prelates is exemplified by the
behaviour of the Bishop of Constance. Both Speyer and
Mainz had written him long letters in November and Decem-
ber, 1785, urging him to join their respective parties,^ as the
result of which he wrote to his Vicar General, " We waver
between two camps, neither of which we want to offend." ^
He then made inquiries of Wiirzburg and Hildesheim, as to
^ Dated from Bruchsal, November 2, 1786 ; text in Hohler,
i8y seq. *Copy of the imperial reply of November 16, 1786, in
the State Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz 393/9-
^ Hohler, 190 seq. Endres' date, the 26th, may be a misprint,
as his source too has the i6th (Stigloher, 204 cf. 290 seq.).
^ The attitude of each one is outhned by Schotte in the
Hist. Jahrbuch, XXXV., 105, n. i. Cf. Hohler, 202 seqq.
* Schotte, ibid., 106 seq.
5 Bishop Stirum to the Bishop of Constance on November 15,
1786 (records of the diocese of Constance, " Papal Nunciatures,"
in the Archives of the Archdiocese of Freiburg i. Br.). Cf. *" Con-
clusum des Geistl. Rats zu Konstanz," of November 9, 1786
(ibid.) ; *Erthal to the Bishop of Constance, December 11,
1786 [ibid.).
' *November 25, 1786 {ibid.).
52 HISTORY OF THE POPES
their attitude/ and even sent a special representative to
Wiirzburg to reconnoitre the situation.^ In the course of the
next few years the letters written to Constance by the two
party-leaders, Erthal and Stirum, were more and more urgent,
and they were now joined by Salzburg.^ It was not till
October, 1788, when Wiirzburg informed Constance ^ that it
hoped to come to terms with Rome — Wiirzburg refraining
from negotiations at the Diet and Rome refraining from
exercising the jurisdiction of the nunciature — that the careful
Swabian prelate decided to follow suit and wrote to Mainz on
these lines. ^ His petition to Rome in the matter, asking for
considerate treatment, evoked a friendly response from the
Pope, though it contained a definite reference to the excessive
demands of the four Metropolitans.^
With these differences of opinion, it soon became evident
that there was no possibility of complete agreement ; some
were in favour of a national council, others would have none
of it.' Finally the Ems punctators came to the conclusion that
1 *Letters of December 23, 1786 [ibid.).
2 *The Bishop of Constance to the Bishop of Wiirzburg,
June 24, 1787 (ibid.).
3 *Erthal to the Bishop of Constance, April 23, 1787 {ibid.) ;
*Stirum to the same. May 19, 1787 (ibid.) ; *Salzburg Consistory
to the same, August 29, 1788 (attacking the tithe Bull ; ibid.) ;
*Erthal to the same, September 25, 1788 (urging him to decide
on co-operation), and October 8, 1788 (asking for his agreement
at the Diet ; ibid.).
* Letter of October 9, 1788 {ibid.) ; *Iettcr of thanks from the
Bishop of Constance to the Bishop of Wurzburg, November 8,
1788 {ibid.).
5 *To Erthal, November 8, 1788, also on October 31, 1789
{ibid.). In a *Ietter of February i, 1790, Erthal asked him once
again for his definite support at the Diet {ibid.).
« *Brief of January 3, 1789 (Papal Secret Archives, Epist. A"
XIV., fo. 137).
' Salzburg, for instance, was in favour of it, Cologne against it.
Cf. the letter from Minister Clauspruch to Heimes on January 4,
1787 (in HoHLER, 197 seqq.), in which Cologne's misgivings were
fully expressed.
THE ARCHBISHOP OF COLOGNE REBUKED 53
the only course that offered any hope of success was to put
their resolutions into practice within their own dioceses, thus
giving them some sort of validity, and to invite those Suffragans
who had shown a co-operative spirit to do Ukewise. The
procedure for dealing with appeals and dispensations in their
four archdioceses were accordingly altered so as to leave out
the nunciatures ; some synodal courts were set up ; and
advocates and procurators were forbidden to have any official
intercourse with the nuncios.^
This illegal and arbitrary procedure naturally met with
opposition on the part of the Roman Curia and its representa-
tives in Germany.^ The nuncios were immediately instructed to
keep a most careful watch for any violation of Papal reserva-
tions and to issue appropriate warnings. But protests were of
no avail. ^ Rome being less disposed than ever to retreat, the
nunciature tribunals exercised their jurisdiction as before.^ In
Cologne, where Belhsomi's successor, Pacca, had granted a
matrimonial dispensation to Prince Hohenlohe-Bartenstein,
there were serious clashes. In response to a complaint about
the matter lodged with the Papal Secretary of State, the
Archbishop received a letter which, carefully worded though
it was, was in essence an unmistakable rebuke.^ The affair
1 ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 320 seq. Cf. the Cologne pastoral letter of
February 4, 1787, with its dispensation from fasting issued on its
own authority (in Stigloher, 307 seqq.).
2 How badly Rome was informed about the happenings at
Ems is shown by Boncompagni's *letters to Caprara of August 12
and 26 and September 7, 1786 (Nunziat. di Germania, 684-5,
Papal Secret Archives). *On October 11, 1786, the nuncio was
instructed to procure the letter written by the Ems punctators
to the emperor, *on November 18, 1786, to find out the emperor's
opinion [ibid.].
' ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 321.
* This was done by Zoglio, for instance, in the matter of
indulgences and dispensations ; cf. for example, his letters of
August 12 and October 4, 1786 {Pragm. Geschichte . . . appendix,
31-35)-
* Cardinal Secretary of State Boncompagni to the Elector
Max Franz on December 20, 1786 (ibid., 807 seq.), and to Pacca on
54 HISTORY OF THE POPES
became more complicated in November, 1786, when Pacca
went so far as to send a circular letter to the Vicars General
and all the clergy of the ecclesiastical provinces of the Rhine,
declaring the dispensations granted directly by the archi-
episcopal diocesan courts to be invaUd, for this drew into the
dispute not only the higher but also the lower ranks of the
clerg}^l The Archbishops were still further incensed, and it
was not until the Elector of Cologne had received a temper-
ately worded letter from the Pope, of January 20th, 1787, that
the excitement was somewhat allayed. ^
Meanwhile a measure taken by the Munich nunciature
provided the Rhenish Archbishops with fresh grounds for
complaint. With the agreement of the Government, ZogUo
appointed special sub-delegates for the outlying districts of the
Bavarian electorate, his purpose being the more expeditious
handling and dispatch of official business. The person
appointed for Diisseldorf was Baron Roberz, who was Provost
there, for Heidelberg the administrational councillor Philipp von
Hertling.^ This step reawakened the suspicions of the Ordinaries
December 26, 1786 {ibid., 322, n. i). His letter of complaint to
Pacca, of November 27, 1786, ibid., appendix 35 seq. The *copy
in the State Archives in Munich, Kasten schwarz 393/9, is dated
November 29, 1786 ; ibid, also Pacca's answer, pointing out
that he was granting the dispensation as nuncio, not as titular
archbishop. Max Franz had complained " que ce serait donner
lieu a des confusions perpetuelles, si des eveques etrangers
vouloient exercer una juridiction dans le diocese d'un autre et
s'ingerer dans I'administration de ses fonctions episcopales "
(ibid.). He had not even recognized Pacca as nuncio. Cf.
Pacca, Memorie storiche, 57 seqq.
^ Encyclical of November 30, 1786, printed in the appendix
to the Responsio (Leodii, 1790), ^^o seqq., mentioned on p. 61,
n. I (Stigloher, 281 seqq.) ; Pacca, Memorie storiche, 63 seqq. ;
Pragniat. Geschichte, appendix, 37 seqq. Ibid., 42-9, the letters of
protest from Mainz, Trier, and Cologne.
^ ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 323 seq.
^ The State Archives in Munich (Kasten schwarz 507/2 ; the
" 570 " hi Enures, 86, n. 4 is a misprint) have copies of the nuncio's
request for the nomination of two candidates (undated) and the
KARL THEODOR S FIRMNESS 55
affected, despite the reassuring declarations of the Bavarian
Government. Numerous complaints made to the emperor
by the three ecclesiastical Electors had little success. Finally,
however, a rescript issued by the Imperial Court Council on
February 27th, 1787, while recognizing all the other rights of
the nunciature, ordered the Bavarian Elector to prevent the
erection of a commissionership in Dusseldorf.^ Karl Theodor
very firmly refused to submit to any such attack on his
sovereign rights and finally made use of the opportunity to
make a full explanation of his attitude towards the whole of
the nunciature dispute.^ A rather tortuous counter-statement
made by the imperial court read very like an apology.^
electoral nomination of Roberz (November 5, 1786), with Zoglio's
letter of October 11, 1786. Ibid., Kasten schwarz 507/166, the
♦papers dealing with the difficulties connected with Zoglio's
recognition on the Lower Rhine and Roberz's administration.
^ *Original of the imperial rescript, ibid., Kasten schwarz
507/16&. Cf. ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 325. The Bavarian envoy in
Vienna, Karl Theodor von Hallberg, had only just received
instructions from the Elector (dated February 16, 1787) to find
out the substance and result of the discussions that were pre-
sumably going on in the Court Council, when, on March 3, he
had to send off the rescript. On his making further inquiries he
was told that the sharp wording of the rescript was in accordance
with the imperial policy of totally abolishing the nunciatures and
that later, step by step, stricter measures would be taken in the
matter. See his *report of May 30, 1787 (State Archives, Munich,
Kasten schwarz 623/66).
2 *Karl Theodor to Joseph IL, April 4, 1787 {ibid., Kasten
schwarz, 507/2). Simultaneous *instructions to Baron von
Hallberg, ibid., Kasten schwarz 507/166. Ibid, another ♦instruc-
tion to Hallberg, of May 30, 1787, with a full memorandum
setting out the reasons for the Elector's attitude, to be used in
future negotiations.
' Hallberg's *report of August 22, 1787, on the deep impression
made on the Court Council by the Elector's reply (the nuncio
would probably be tolerated : ibid., Kasten schwarz 623/66) ;
♦report of November 28, 1787 : the Imperial Court Councillor
was seeking a compromise, but he would rather recognize a native
56 HISTORY OF THE POPES
In the course of time ever wider circles were caught up in
the discussion about the Ems punctation, and finally the
general public. One of the first to enter the fray was Bishop
von Limburg-Stirum himself, who published a spirited pam-
phlet full of objections to the Ems demands. This led to
a fruitless correspondence with Salzburg and a violent pubhc
controversy in print with Cologne, in which other circles were
involved.^ The number of polemical works and written
opinions on the German nunciature dispute was so enormous
that even now the collection of them is still far from complete.^
There then took place an incident of an ecclesiastico-
political nature that proved to be the turning-point in the
history of the Ems punctation. The Elector of Mainz fell so
seriously ill as to necessitate the election of a coadjutor, and
in this appointment Prussia, in pursuance of its policy of the
League of Princes, was particularly deeply interested.^ It was
agreed that the most suitable person for the post was Canon
Bishop than a foreign nuncio [ibid.) ; *report of December 12, 1787 :
the Court Council's decision had been dispatched, but Hallberg
was still ignorant of its content ; in any case the Protestant
members had adopted the attitude of the Curia and had outvoted
the Catholic members (ibid.). On September 30, 1788, the
Imperial Vice-Chancellor Colloredo *wrote that the emperor
intended to treat the Elector with the greatest consideration
and would gladly assist " in the establishment of a permanent
ecclesiastical system " (ibid.).
1 HoHLER, 208 seqq.
2 When competing for a prize offered by the theological
faculty of the university of Munich, in 1930-31, Habenschaden
had collected and edited about 140 publications from the Munich
archives and libraries alone. I saw his work in manuscript form.
' Cf. HoHLER, 225 seqq., and Schotte's complete presentation
of the matter {loc. cit., 330 seqq.) based on Vatican records.
Immich, using the documents published by Lehmann [Preussen
und die kath. Kirche, VI. and Vll. [1893-4]), has dealt with
Prussia's participation in the affair in his article " Preussens
Vermittlung im Nuntiaturstreit 1787-89 " in the Forschungen
zur brandenburg. u. preuss. Gesch., VIII. (1895), ^43 seqq.
Cf. also the account in Pacca, Mentor ie stor., 73 seqq.
AGREEMENT BETWEEN ROME AND MAINZ 57
Karl Theodor von Dalberg, Baron of the Empire. After some
difficulties, by no means slight, had been overcome in the
Chapter itself, the Roman Curia's assent to Dalberg's appoint-
ment had to be obtained, and further trouble was anticipated
in this quarter, as Dalberg's views were notoriously similar to
those of Archbishop Erthal. To remove these obstructions the
parties interested were prepared to make concessions in the
matter of the Ems punctation. To effect an arrangement on
this basis, the Marchese Lucchesini, a diplomat of some
experience, was sent to Rome by the Prussian Court. ^ Lucche-
sini's mission was successful, and on May 2nd, 1787, an agree-
ment was reached between Rome and Mainz, by which the
desired election was sanctioned on condition that the ecclesias-
tico-political status quo that existed before the Congress of
Ems was retained. Mainz had been moved to make this
concession by the far from friendly attitude shown towards
the Ems demands by Austria, Bavaria, and Prussia, and the
Ems coahtion was thereby breached in a vital spot. This
conclusion of at least an outward peace with Mainz had
another effect which was not unwelcome to Rome : the
increasing friendliness towards the Curia evinced by Prussia,
which might be valuable in connexion with the nunciature
dispute and the Josephist reforms.^ Henceforth, out of
gratitude for this benevolent neutrality, Pius VI., when
addressing the Prussian sovereign, did not demur to use the
royal title, which Rome had hitherto refused to recognize.^
1 Immich, loc. cit., 145. Dienseim, the president of the chamber,
was first sele<;ted, then Dalberg, whose Brief of eligibility was
made out on April 18 [ibid., 147).
^ Pacca, the nuncio, was instructed to seek an audience of the
Prussian king and to convey to him the Pope's thanks. This
he did at Wesel on June 15. His address was pubhshed by
ScHOTTE [loc. cit., 816 seq.). Cf. Immich, loc. cit., 157, and Pacca's
owa account {Memorie sior., 87 seqq.).
^ ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 328. That this courtesy could have been
no juridical recognition in accordance with canon law has been
shown in Archiv fiir Kirchenrecht, CHI. (1924), 136 seq. Cf.
Kurt Rheindorf, Die Anerkennung des preuss. Konigstitels
58 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Even in these circumstances the questions raised by the
Congress of Ems were not allowed to rest. In issuing a Bull
of taxation to the Bavarian Elector,^ a transaction of little
importance in itself, which would not normally have attracted
attention, Pius VI. was deemed by the Ems punctators to have
exceeded his legitimate powers. On this occasion the objectors
were headed by Salzburg and Trier, but they soon realized
they would make no impression on the Bavarian Government,
which stood its ground, and there being no prospect of either
Rome or Munich agreeing to a compromise, the MetropoHtans
entertained the idea in the course of 1788 of initiating negotia-
tions with Rome, but their efforts were not rewarded with any
immediate tangible success.
These attempts having failed, there was still another course
of action available to the exponents of the Ems resolutions :
they could try to secure the co-operation of the German Diet.
It had alread}^ been pointed out in a decree of the Imperial
Court Council of November, 1787,2 replying to a complaint by
Salzburg about Zogho's jurisdiction, that the final decision on
the whole question of the German nunciatures rested with the
Diet in fuU session. The project was eventually approved by
the Courts concerned, and on August 9th, 1788, the matter
was accordingly referred to the Diet by Joseph 11.^ The
Elector of Mainz then sent the Imperial Estates a detailed
memorandum of the Ems demands, culminating in a clamorous
appeal for the preservation of freedom for the German Church.*
durch die Kurie, in the Zeitschr. der Savigny-Stiftung, XLIL,
Kan. Abt. XI. (1921), 442-6. The Papal Brief of April 5, 1788,
and Friedrich Wilhelm II. 's letter of thanks of June 23, 1788,
are to be found in Pacca, Memorie stor., 88 seqq., 96 seqq.
1 ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 338. Cf. the relative *acts in the State
Archives, Munich, Acta comit., Kasten schwarz 214/7.
^ This decree ran clean contrary to Joseph II.'s ecclcsiastico-
political ideas, and consequently was suppressed by him. Cf.
ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 781 seqq.
3 Ibid., 786. Printed copy in the State Archives, Munich,
Kasten blau 416/9.
* For the twofold version, cf. Schotte, 786, n. 2. Count
MUNICH AND THE DIET 59
Being urged more and more insistently to deal with the matter
quickly, most of the Protestant and some of the ecclesiastical
Estates gave their support to the motion/ and it only remained
to overcome the obstructions offered by several members of
the Prussian League of Princes.^
As time went on, these discussions tended more and more to
concentrate on the original point at issue : the Papal nuncia-
tures and their faculties. Memoranda were sent in all direc-
tions, the matter was discussed by every publicist,^ and it soon
looked as if the leisurely tempo of the negotiations associated
with the Diet would bring about its gradual demise before any
result could be obtained. The Munich Government declared
its readiness in principle to come to a friendly understanding,
but insisted that the decision of the question rested with the
sovereign of the country and not with the Diet, and it threat-
ened to set up bishoprics of its own if the Diet passed a
resolution in another sense* Even the Archbishops now be-
Lerchenfeld sent along with his *report to the Elector of May i6,
1789, a copy of the Mainz letter to the Margrave of Ansbach and
a copy of the printed circular letter to the Catholic Estates
{loc. cit., Kasten schwarz 214/7, II.).
1 Some of the Estates are listed by Schotte (798, n. i).
* Prussia had strong objections against the matter being dealt
with by the Diet principally because it had no desire to fall out
with Rome. Finally, however, Friedrich Wilhelm II. voted against
the nunciatures, in accordance with the demands of the Empire,
after further attempts had been made to effect a compromise.
Cf. Immich, loc. cit., 166.
^ Cf. A. Professione, Antonio Felice Zondadari e Bartol.
Pacca, Milano, 1899, 49 seq.
* Instructions from the Elector to Count Lerchenfeld, of
August 27 and October 8, 1788, and December 3, 1789 [loc. cit.,
Kasten schwarz 393/2, 21 ^/'j II., 393/4). Lerchenfeld com-
municated the first of these instructions to the Courts friendly
to Bavaria, tactfully omitting several passages {cf. his *report
to Karl Theodor of September, 5, 1788, ibid., 393/2) and added
full memoranda in the same sense to his *reports to the Elector
of September 12, 1788, and December 2, 1789 {ibid., 393/2 and 4).
On the other hand, Lerchenfeld was able to send his sovereign.
60 HISTORY OF THE POPES
sought the Pope to settle the matter on a friendly basis rather
than expose it to the pubhcity of the Diet.^ Cardinal Herzan,
on instructions from the emperor, tried to move the Pope in
this direction, but Pius would not give way, while earnestly
professing his readiness to remove any genuine abuses.^
With the passage of time even those most nearly concerned
lost interest in the matter. Trier, after supporting the action
in the Diet in a half-hearted fashion, soon followed the example
of Mainz and made a separate peace with the Curia. Klemens
Wenzeslaus came to Rome to obtain the quinquennial faculties
and forbade any attitude towards the Ems Punctation to be
taken in the schools of his diocese.^ Likewise the peace party
in the cathedral chapter of Cologne, which also sought for
reconciliation with the Pope, was on the increase. With the
lapse of time and the general exhaustion the storm had died
down.*
The movement reached its logical conclusion in the long-
awaited pronouncement of its attitude by the Papal Court,
which in fullness and clarity of exposition left nothing to be
on April 19, 1789, a copy of the Brunswick instruction {ibid.,
393/3)- According to the first instruction from the Bavarian
Electorate the emperor was to be asked by the Diet to initiate
mediatory negotiations with the Pope.
^ Cf., for example, the letters to Pius VL from Klemens
Wenzeslaus on November 18 and from CoUoredo on November 24,
1788 (*copies in the State Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz
393/9) ; *Max Franz to Pius VI. on November 28, 1788 {ibid.,
507/4)-
2 Under date February 4, 1789, *Zoglio sent a copy of the
report on this audience to the Bavarian Government {ibid.
507/5). Erthal had asked Joseph II. to mediate, and the emperor
had agreed to do so. Cf. *Erthal to Joseph II. on November 17,
1788, and * Joseph II. to Erthal on December 6, 1788 {ibid.,
507/4). Cf. also the report on the audience in *Cifra to Caprara
on January 21, 1789 (Nunziat. di Germania, 684-5, Papal
Secret Archives) .
^ ScHOTTE, loc. cit., 803.
* Ibid.. 804.
PAPAL PRONOUNCEMENT ON EMS PUNCTATION 6l
desired. A special Congregation consisting of the Secretary of
State Zelada, and Cardinals Albani, Antonelli, Gerdil, and
Campanelli, had been appointed by Pius VI. in the autumn of
1789 to inquire into the Punctation of Ems and the other
complaints that had been raised. The Congregation concerned
with the Synod of Pistoia met at the same time. The fruit of
the discussions appeared in a detailed memorandum covering
several hundred pages and entitled Sanctissimi Domini Nostri
Pit papae Sexti Responsio ad Metropolitanos Moguntinum,
Trevirensem, Coloniensem et Salisburgensem super Nunciaturis
Apostolicis. It had been composed, on the Pope's instruction,
by Campanelli. On November 14th, 1789, the pronouncement
was sent as an enclosure in a Papal Brief to the four punc-
tators.i
Pius VI. began his Brief by referring to the Archbishops'
letter of December, 1788, and expressing the hope that the
accompanying " Responsio " would bring home to them the
absurdity of their demands. The length of the memorandum
was not due to the difficulty of the subject but to the vast
1 A *MS. copy sent from Rome is in the State Archives,
Munich (Kasten schwarz 393/7). An exact contemporaneous
copy appeared " juxta exemplar Romae, Leodii 1790 ", with
various documents in an appendix. This copy contains on
pp. 465 seqq. corrigenda for an obviously tendentious edition
purporting to be published in Florence ; actually it was published
in Mainz. On p. 467 is a note (a) referring to Klemens Wenzeslaus :
" Hunc ex catalogo tuo expunge. Is enim saniorem mentem
induit," and on p. 473 is another (b) referring to the other three :
" Speramus meliora. Imitabuntur procul dubio CoIIegam
Trevirensem, qui errorem deposuit." The dispatch of the
Responsio to the addressees, after lengthy studies, was reported,
for example, to Venice by *the agent Pietro Donado on November
21, 1789 (State Archives, Venice, Roma 302), and its appearance
in print to Genoa by the *agent Serafino Figari on February 6,
1790 (State Archives, Genoa, 2405). Cf. Gendry, II., 25 seqq.
The Pope had the work sent to the emperor so that he might see
how much he was relying on him in these matters {*Cifra to
Caprara, November 14, 1789, Nunziat. di Germania 684-5,
Papal Secret Archives).
62 HISTORY OF THE POPES
amount of literature that had to be considered ; there was
hardly a courier that came to Rome from Germany that failed
to bring with him a mass of pamphlets on the nunciature
dispute, so the Holy City now had a superabundance of German
publications. The long delay in the preparation of the memo-
randum had been caused by the Church's occupation with other
pressing cares. The Brief ended with an urgent appeal to each
of the recipients to recognize the nunciature tribunals then
existing in Germany and to defend them against all con-
testants. " Get rid of all innovations," it went on to say,
" into which You have been seduced against Your will by the
wickedness of others. Bring everything back to the state in
which it was before and show by Your actions the love for
Your Mother that You claim for Yourself. And lastly acknow-
ledge the right that has been joined inseparably to the primacy
as such by divine institution, a right which We can never
renounce and which no decision of a Diet, which has no
competence in the matter, can abolish." At the same time the
Pope stated that he was more than ready to take action
against any abuses that had crept in, if they were brought to
his attention.
Thus the accompanying Brief. The extensive memorandum
itself, which soon appeared in print, ^ began with an enumera-
tion and criticism of all the personalities involved in the
dispute. This was followed by six chapters in which the
various grievances were treated : the erection of the Munich
nunciature, the appointment by this nunciature of commis-
saries in Heidelberg and Diisseldorf, Pacca's letter to the
Suffragans and the clergy of the archdioceses, the rejection of
Cologne's request for the sanctioning of a general mandate for
the new synodal courts and Cologne's assertion that the Papal
sanction for the independent erection of this tribunal was
unnecessary, and finally the tithe Bull granted to Bavaria. The
seventh chapter took up almost all the second half of the
memorandum and offered positive proofs of the unrestricted
^ Summary of the contents in Wolf, Geschichie dcr rom.-kath.
Kirche, IV., 301 seqq.
THE DEATH OF EMPEROR JOSEPH II. 63
rights of the Papacy. Eight sections were devoted to demon-
strating the uncontested right to appoint extraordinary-
legates in extraordinary conditions, which certainly existed in
the German dioceses, and the right to appoint ordinary
nuncios with permanent jurisdiction. In three more sections
historical evidence of the existence of this right was adduced,
first from the earliest times till the ninth century, then from
the ninth to the fifteenth century, and lastly from the fifteenth
century till the present day. This was followed by evidence
from conciliar decisions, mostly those taken by the four
German Metropolitans, and from resolutions of the Diet and
imperial ordinances, in the issue of which even the Protestant
Estates had participated. In a final brief chapter various
specific objections were rebutted.
The Brief and memorandum were transmitted to the
German Archbishops by the nuncio Pacca. Both documents
made a deep impression. For Klemens Wenzeslaus in particular
they provided the final impetus that decided him to make his
peace with Rome.^ In February, 1790, he informed his former
comrades-in-arms that he was no longer of their company.^
On the same day, February 20th, 1790, there took place
another event of great moment for the German Church : the
death of Joseph 11.^ The nunciature dispute was now nearing
its end. The nunciature at Munich remained in existence.*
^ HoHLER, 229 seq., 237.
^ Letters to the three Archbishops, to the Vicar General at
Trier, and the Official at Coblenz, all of February 20, 1790 {ibid.,
238 seqq.).
^ On February 16, 1790, Reinach, a member of the cathedral
chapter, *wrote from Wiirzburg to the Bishop of Constance that
the death of the emperor would bring about a change in the whole
situation (Archives of the Archdiocese of Freiburg im Breisgau,
loc. cit.).
* Subsequently Karl Theodor succeeded in setting up the
office of a Grand Almoner and an exempt Court Bishopric. Cf.
Vieregg's *report, of February 13, 1790, to Antici on the grand
solemnization of the foundation on February 9 (State Archives,
Munich, Kasten schwarz 508/1).
64 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Zoglio was recalled in February, 1794, and died a year later.^
On learning that the internuncio to Turin, Conte Ziucci, had
been chosen to succeed him,^ Karl Theodor brought it to the
Pope's knowledge ^ how pleased he would be to have at his
Court, if only for a time, Annibale della Genga (the future
Pope Leo XII.), who had succeeded Pacca as nuncio to Cologne
in 1794 and was residing in Augsburg.^ Pius VI. acceded to
his wish, and Della Genga was internuncio in Munich from
May, 1795, till April, 1796.^ His place was taken by Ziucci
until 1800, and then ensued a long interval in which the
nunciature was left unoccupied.^
A hard lot was in store for the German Metropolitans. Their
territories were invaded by the victorious armies of the French
^ *Communication to the Elector on April 21, 1795 {ibid.,
393/4)-
2 *Cardinal Antici to Karl Theodor, April 25, 1795 (ibid.).
3 The Elector *wrote to Antici on May 9, 1795 (ibid.), that
Antici was to tell the Pope " che io gradisco la destinazione della
persona del conte Ziucci in nunzio alia mia corte, e che gli sono
anzi gratissimo per avere a tal efietto scelta persona che mi
lusingo sia per giustificare la sua elezione ed esser di mia piena
soddisfazione ". At the same time, however, he repeated his
request for Delia Genga, at least in the interim. " *Dopo la
morte di Mgr. Zollio I'elettore Carlo Teodoro aveva fatto premura
presso la S. Sede per avere in qualita di nunzio Mgr. Annibale
della Genga arcivescovo di Tiro (nel 1823 Leone XII.), il quale
si trovava in Augusta nunzio accreditato presso gli elettori
eccP al Reno e che aveva seguito relcttore di Treviri in Augusta.
Pero la S. Sede aveva gia destinato presso la corte elettorale di
Baviera Mgr. Anidio dei conti Ziucci di Ascoli. " Serie dei nunzii
accreditati presso la corte di Baviera " (Archives of the Apostolic
Nunciature in Munich, now in Rome).
* For Pacca's recall and the transference of the nunciature to
Augsburg, V. his Meniorie sioriche, 166 seqq.
^ *Brief of Pius VI. 's to Karl Theodor, of May 3, 1795, and
Zelada's *letter to the same, of May 16, 1795 (State Archives,
Munich, Kasten schwarz 393/4 ; the Elector's *lettcrs of thanks
to the two writers, dated June 20, ibid.
® " *Serie dei nunzii accreditati " {loc. cit.).
JOSEPH II. AND THE NETHERLANDS 65
Revolution, and in 1792 Archbishop Erthal had to take to
flight ; two years later the same expedient was forced upon the
Electors of Trier and Cologne, and finally also upon the
Metropolitan of Salzburg.^ In 1803, at the behest of France,
a harsh decree was passed by the Deputation of the Empire,
depriving them of their landed property for ever.
(2)
Joseph II. also had to suffer opposition, which in this case
was of the most bitter nature, to his well-intentioned but ill-
considered reforms, even in his lifetime. In the Austrian
Netherlands this resistance led to bloody clashes and finally
to a complete break with the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Through the death of his mother, Joseph II. had become the
sovereign ruler of the Netherlands, and in 1781 he pledged
himself, through the oath taken in the presence of the Belgian
Primate, Cardinal Frankenberg of Malines,^ by his deputy and
brother-in-law, the newly-appointed Stadholder Albert of
Sachsen-Teschen, to uphold the traditional rights and privi-
leges (" Joyeuse Entree ").^ During his stay in the country,
which he made at this time, Joseph observed with what old-
fashioned cumbersomeness and meticulousness official business
was transacted and justice administered, and this was enough
inducement for him, with his reforming zeal and love of
thrift, to intervene here too with the object, as he conceived
it, of effecting an improvement. The very least he could do
^ HoHLER, 243 seq. ; Gendry, II., 29.
^ For Frankenberg, v. A. Theiner, Der Kardinal Johann
Heinrich Graf von Frankenberg, Erzbischof von Mecheln, Primas
von Belgien, und sein K amp f fur die Freiheit der Kirche und der
bischofl. Seminarien unter Kaiser Joseph II., Freiburg i. Br.,
1850 ; Arthur Verhaegen, Le cardinal de Franckenberg,
archeveque de M alines (i 726-1 804, Bruges-Lille [1890].)
' Schlitter, Josephs II. Regierung in den Niederlanden, I.,
1 1 ; Gendry, II., 30. Cf. also Lainen, Joseph II. en zijn regeering
in de Nederlanden, Anvers, 1908 ; L. Delaplace, S.J., Joseph II.
et la revolution brabanfonne, Bruges, 1890.
66 HISTORY OF THE POPES
was to introduce into this country too the measures he had
had carried out in the other hereditary lands.
While he was still in the Netherlands, therefore, he gave
instructions that the ground should be prepared for a universal
toleration, which, despite Cardinal Frankenberg's remon-
strances, was introduced shortly afterwards by letters patent
of October 13th, 1781.^ Considerable indignation was aroused
among the Bishops and Estates both by this and another
measure, the abolition of all exemptions enjoyed by the
regular clergy, which was carried out in defiance of a reasoned
memorial presented by the Privy Council in Brussels. Bad
blood was also inevitably created in the highest ecclesiastical
circles by the ordinance authorizing the Bishops to use their
right of dispensation without reference to the Pope and by the
ever increasing suppression of religious houses that had been
in progress since 1782.2
The general discontent was brought to a head in October,
1786, by the publication of another decree, providing for the
suppression of the episcopal seminaries and their replacement
by two others, controlled by the State, at Louvain and
Luxemburg.^ Again the earnest remonstrances of the Cardinal
and the Bishops were ignored.
As, however, a certain measure of supervision was conceded
to the Bishops, the theological students assembled in their
new schools in accordance with instructions. At Louvain, on
December 1st, when the lectures began, the students com-
plained that they were being taught heretical doctrines,
violent disturbances ensued, and in a few days, though the
Rector did his -best to allay them, they developed into open
revolt. So much damage was done to the building that the
Rector was forced to retreat to Brussels, where he sought the
help of the Government.* Further attempts to quell the
1 Verhaegen, 97 seqq. ; Schlitter, 20 seqq. ; Pirenne, V.,
391 seqq.
* Schlitter, 23-6.
^ Ibid., 30 ; Gendry, II., 31 seqq. ; Verhaegen, 154 seqq.,
157 seqq. ; Pirenne, V., 407 seqq.
* Schlitter, 55 seqq.
EXPULSION OF THE NUNCIO 67
rebellion failed, the military were called in, and the Govern-
ment appointed a commission to investigate the matter. But
this did not break the spirit of the rebels. Finally, at the
beginning of the new year the Government gave them the
choice of submission or dismissal, whereupon most of the
students chose to return to their dioceses.^
Meanwhile the Government, whose clumsy handling of the
incident incurred the censure of the emperor, had tracked
down the students whom they considered to be chiefly respon-
sible for the disorders and locked them up.^ What was more
serious, Zondadari,^ the Papal nuncio in Brussels, was accused
of having incited them. Actually his only misdemeanour had
been to have some copies printed, without the Stadholder's
knowledge, of the Papal Brief against Eybel's pamphlet
" What is the Pope ? ". He averred ^ that they were intended
primarily for the missions, but they had found their way into
the seminary at Louvain, where, it was alleged, they had
played an important part in the disorders. The theologians
there had in fact found fault with their professors for teaching
the same Febronian heresies as had been condemned in the
Pope's Brief against Eybel.
The Stadholder's office was now thinking of forbidding
the nuncio to appear again at Court, but Vienna thought that
this was not sufficiently drastic. Prince Kaunitz suggested to
the emperor that a nunciature at Brussels was unnecessary
and asked for Zondadari's expulsion from Austrian territory.
Joseph II. was remarkably quick in accepting this proposal,
and the nuncio was given the definite order, dated February
14th, 1787, to depart from Brussels and the Netherlands
1 Ibid., 59.
* Gendry, II., 32.
* For Zondadari, cf. Moroni, CIII., 480 ; A. Professione,
Zondadari e Pacca, 7 seqq. ; ibid., 11-14 his journey and arrival
in Brussels. His journal dealing with these events in Hubert,
Les papier s du nonce Zondadari, in the Bulletin de la Commission
Royale {belgique) d'histoire, LXXXlV. (1920), 178.
* Ibid., 126, 192. Incidentally Rome, not Brussels, was given
as the place of publication.
68 HISTORY OF THE POPES
within a few days. In future, the representative of the Holy
See in Vienna would be responsible for the Netherlands as
weU.i
Outwardly the Pope sustained this fresh attack with perfect
calm and patience, but actuaUy it had come as a great shock
to the Curia.2 On March 3rd Cardinal Herzan reported on an
interview he had had with the Secretary of State, Boncom-
pagni, who had admitted that the nuncio was somewhat to
blame, inasmuch as he had not been authorized to have the
Brief printed, but he defended him from the charge of having
deliberately incited the students to rebellion. In any case, the
Brief had already been made public long before, by a Luxem-
burg journal, so that the imperial decision could only be
regarded as an unwarranted humiliation of the Pope. Pius VI.
1 ScHLiTTER, 60 ; Professione, 24 ; Hubert, 135 seq. With
the approval of the Cardinal Secretary of State, Zondadari
retired to the Abbey of Saint-Trond in Holland (Hubert, 144,
193) ; I'- ibid., 201, the Secretary of State to Zondadari on
March 7, 1787. Cf. " *Memorie relat. alia partenza del nunzio
cacciato di Bruxelles, 1785," Cod. Vat. 8652 of the Vatican
Library.
^ The Secretary of State gave vent to his indignation in a
♦letter to the nuncio Caprara, of February 21, 1787 : " Quanto
al breve di Eybel, il buon Zondadari non ha preso pensiero di
pubblicarlo ; ma non so, come osservatore e filosofo, riconciliare
con s^ stessi i metodi di S.M., e se avessi I'onore d'accostarlo,
conterei tanto sopra la sua equita e ragione, che non avrei
difficolta di dirlo a lui stesso. Deve esser permesso ad Eybel
di denigrare, estenuare, ridurre al niente il papa, e non deve
esser permesso al papa di riprovare e confutare Eybel ? Dov' h
la liberta che tanto si vanta, dove I'indifferenza cui tante cose si
sacrificano ? e la liberta della stampa sara solo pe' libri contro
la religione, che sara sempre vietato di difendere sino al capo
stesso della religione cattolica ? Sarcmo ridotti a dimandare al
primo sovrano della nostra communione almeno la neutralita,
e neppur questa otterremo ? " Nunziat. di Germania, 684-5,
fo. 162, Papal Secret Archives. Boncompagni to Zondadari,
undated, in Hubert, 200. Cf. *Cifre al Caprara, February 28,
March 3 and 14, 1787 (Nunziat. di Germania, he. cit.).
THE CARDINAL OF MALINES IN VIENNA 69
had, in fact, as Herzan learnt from another source, been
extremely hurt by the step that had been taken.^ It was also
viewed with disapproval by many of the secular Courts of
Europe.^ A significant feature of the situation was the fear
that the Prussian king, who at that time was anxious to secure
the friendship of the Pope, would offer the rejected nuncio
a refuge in his country, from where he could care for the
interests of the other areas in his charge, namely Holland and
England.^
At an audience he granted to the Austrian Cardinal Minister
at the beginning of April, Pius VI. spoke with great self-
restraint of the grave humiliation inflicted on him by Joseph
XL's action in the Netherlands.* Nevertheless, at the same
interview, Herzan tried to persuade the Pope to close the
nunciature in Brussels, on the plea that the nuncio in Vienna
could easily deal with the affairs of Brussels as well as his
own.^ The Pope, of course, would listen to no such proposal.
The Cardinal of Malines ^ being thought to be the prime
leader of the clergy's opposition to the imperial measures of
reform, the emperor sought to render him harmless by sum-
moning him immediately to Vienna, to give an account of
the disturbances in the Netherlands, In Vienna the Cardinal
made proposals in writing to the emperor with a view to
mediation, but Joseph rejected them outright and gave him
the choice of altering his views on the imperial aims or of
resigning his office. Rome had hoped that the emperor would
see things in a different light after listening to Frankenberg,''
but not only was the emperor impervious to the Cardinal's
1 Brunner, Theol. Dienerschaft, 152 seq. ; Hubert, 149 seq.
2 Herzan's report of March 24, 1787, in Brunner, 1595^5'.
' Hubert, 150.
* Herzan's report of April 4, 1787, in Brunner, 161 seq. Cf.
Hubert, 149, 155.
5 ScHLiTTER, 61 seq.
* Zondadari wrote about him in his report (ch. 4), in Hubert,
183 seq.
' *Cifre al Caprara, of March 17 and 24 and June 25, 1787
{loc. cit.).
70 HISTORY OF THE POPES
exposition of the situation ; the Cardinal himself was not
uninfluenced by the arguments put forward by Government
circles in Vienna.^
Meanwhile the students' revolt in Louvain was not by any
means over and forgotten. From time to time the smouldering
embers burst into flames. The indignation aroused among the
theological members of the clergy was only the prelude to far
more widespread disturbances which, by degrees, affected ever
larger sections of the whole population and finally led to a
general rebellion against the imperial system of reform, which
was ruthlessly suppressing long-established privileges, not
only in the ecclesiastical sphere but also in the civil adminis-
tration and the judicature. Meanwhile, through making
temporary concessions, the imperial Stadtholder, Prince
Francis, found his position growing more difficult every day,
and he was finally recalled by the emperor and replaced by
General Murray, who was made responsible for the military
government of the province. ^ Murray, too, in spite of the
stringent instruction he had received, had hopes at first of
averting the threatening catastrophe by an amicable agree-
ment,^ but he too only brought upon himself the distrust and
displeasure of his master. Joseph II., hoping to stifle any
question of rebellion by a rigid policy of the utmost severity,
failed to perceive how thoroughly bad the situation was until
the Netherlandish volunteers and the Government troops
were engaged in an open civil war.
Murray was now replaced by General Trautmansdorff,'* who,
when all forcible measures had failed,^ followed the example of
his predecessors and tried to settle the dispute about the
general seminaries by friendly means, thinking that this would
be the quickest way of bringing the whole popular movement
to an end. He accordingly proposed to the emperor that
a compromise be sought by allowing the theologians to be
1 ScHLiTTER, 62 seqq. Cf. Gendry, II., 33 ; Pirenne, V., 435.
* O. LoRENZ, Joseph II. und die helg. Niederlande, 21.
» Ibid., 29.
* Gendry, II., 35 seqq.
5 LoRENz, 49-58 ; Pirenne, V., 438.
THE GOVERNMENT S CONCESSIONS 7I
trained in Vienna and then to occupy their posts in the
Netherlands ^ ; alternatively, some concessions might be
made to the Bishops on matters of secondary importance.^
Later he proposed that the students should undergo only two
years' training in the State seminary, the first three years to be
spent in the episcopal establishments.^
But none of these proposals led to a settlement of the
dispute. When it also seemed useless to try to stave off the
disaster by prolonging the negotiations,^ Trautmansdorff
pubUshed an edict, dated August 14th, 1789, whereby the
episcopal seminaries were to have the same recognition and
legal vahdity as the State ones,^ since the people, in their
unfounded suspicion of the Government, feared that the new
system was intended to open the way for new and erroneous
doctrines. But Joseph II. was very angry at this announce-
ment being made at what was thought to be an inappropriate
moment, also at the failure to carry out some important
restrictions that he wished to be imposed upon the theologians
belonging to the regular clergy.^
In any case the conciliatory attitude now shown by the
imperial government had come too late to have the desired
effect of pacifying the population. It was also unfortunate
that just at this time Cardinal Frankenberg, whose translation
to Prague or Vienna was being considered by the Court, took
to flight to ensure his personal safety,' whereupon the Brussels
^ Letter to- Joseph II., of May 13, 1788, in Schlitter, Geh.
Korrespondenz Josephs II. mit Trautmansdorjf, 91 seq.
2 Letter to Joseph II. of June 10, 1788 {ibid., loi).
* Letter to Joseph II. of May 25, 1789 {ibid., 260).
* Letters to Joseph II. of July 24 and August 6, 1789 {ibid.,
316 seq., 336).
^ Verhaegen, Franckenberg, 256 seqq. Cf. Trautmansdorff' s
letter to Joseph II. of August 14, 1789, in Schlitter, Geh.
Korrespondenz, 351.
* Joseph II. to Trautmansdorff on August 22 and 25, 1789
{ibid., 360, 363).
' Reports to Joseph II., of November 8 and 11, 1789 {ibid.,
470, 473). Cf. Joseph II. to Trautmansdorff on September 28,
72 HISTORY OF THE POPES
government confiscated his property.^ On it becoming knowm
that he had been on the point of being arrested by Trautmans-
dorff, the Habsburg Government lost what Uttle goodwill it
had still enjoyed, and Rome too was deeply embittered.^
Simultaneously the insurgents were capturing one town after
another in their victorious advance. At the eleventh hour
Trautmansdorff made them the most far-reaching concessions
and gave them his word that they would be carried out,^ but
even this was no longer of any avail. Finally, after even the
Government troops had deserted him and copious supplies had
fallen into the hands of the rebels, he was forced to quit the
capital almost as a fugitive. " The accursed revolution has
actually come about," he reported to his emperor in Vienna
on December 15th.* Joseph II. was so ashamed and enraged
by this unexpected disaster that he would gladly have put
himself at the head of his troops and quelled the insurrection
at the point of the sword, ^ but he no longer had the physical
strength for any such undertaking ; his frame was weak and
sickly and was already in the grip of a mortal disease.
Driven well-nigh desperate by this emergency, the emperor,
who had been so self-willed in the past, now sent out a cry
for help to the Power against which he had formerly waged so
unremitting a warfare — the Holy See. He must have fought
and won a bitter struggle with his pride before he could have
asked the Pope — whose representative he had driven out of
the country that had risen up against him — to come to his
assistance in winning that country back again.
Grievously though it must have irked him. Chancellor
Kaunitz had to ask the Pope, through Cardinal Herzan in
1789 {ibid., ^06 seq.); Trautmansdorff's report to Joseph II.
of November 12, 1789, in Schlitter, Geh. Korrespondenz, 477.
1 Gendry, II., 38 seq.
^ *Cifra al Caprara, of November 26, 1789 (Nunziat. di
Germania, 684-5, loc. cit.).
' Proclamation of November 26, J789 (Gendry, II., 41).
* Schlitter, Geh. Korrespondenz^ 531 seqq.
^ Gendry, II., 42.
PAPAL BRIEF TO THE BELGIAN BISHOPS 73
Rome,^ so to prevail upon the Belgian Bishops that the
Netherlands would remain an apanage of the imperial crown.
In return for this assistance the emperor promised to revoke
completely all the reforming laws, whether civil or ecclesias-
tical, he had introduced into the province, and to grant an
unconditional amnesty to all the rebels. It was possible, too,
that the emperor would be willing to take similar measures in
the rest of his hereditary lands.^
Pius VI., only too willing to return good for evil, declared
his readiness to take a hand in the affair as quickly as possible.^
One thing only he asked, that the emperor should now make
reparation for all the injuries he had done the Church and- the
disasters he had brought upon it.^ Then, after some very
careful preliminary work, a Brief was written to the Belgian
Bishops,^ dated January 23rd, 1790, to be conveyed to them
by the nuncio Zondadari, who was then resident in Liege.
Zondadari too had been approached, by an imperial general,
for the purpose of obtaining his good offices in the regaining
of the province,^ so radically and rapidly had the situation
altered.
The Brief to the hierarchy of the Austrian Netherlands was
1 Ibid., 43.
^ Cf. Herzan's reports of January 13-30, 1790, in Brunner,
Theol. Dienerschaft, 191-9. Cf. the *report of the agent Pietro
Donado to Venice on January g, 1790 (State Archives, Venice,
Esteri-Roma 302).
^ For Herzan's audience, v. *Cifra al Caprara of January 9,
1790 (Nunziat. di Germania, loc. cit.). Cf. *Cifre to the same,
January 13, 16, 23, 1790 (ibid.).
* Pius VI. 's desire was that the emperor *" dia qualche riparo
per i danni e disastri che o per sorpresa o per altrui seduzioni
o anche per errore d'inteletto egU ha cagionati e inferiti alia
rehgione, alia chiesa e ai di lei ministri ". There followed a list
of his complaints. Cifra al Caprara, February 24, 1790 {ibid.).
* Translated in P. Ph. Wolf, Gesch. der Kirche unter Pius VI.,
III., 628 seqq. Cf. Verhaegen, 276.
* Brunner, loc. cit., 193. During his term of exile Zondadari
travelled through the parts of the Rhineland and of Holland
that were still under his jurisdiction (Professione, 34 seq.).
74 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the result of mature deliberation and was characteristic of the
Pope's prudent manner of procedure. It began by giving
generous praise to the Bishops and the Estates for their
defence of the Church's rights and for their loyal attitude
towards the civil authority at the time of the insurrection.
They had very rightly raised a vigorous protest against the
numerous innovations which had been prescribed in the
emperor's name but apparently against his will, and which
contravened their country's constitution. But the object of
their desires had now been attained : they were to hear from
the Pope's own lips the definite pronouncement of the
emperor's that guaranteed the Bishops the full and unrestricted
exercise of their pastoral office, and the Estates the restoration
of their ancient constitutional rights. In conclusion the Pope
asked the Bishops to hold out the hand of peace and to use
their united strength to bring about a reconciliation between
the people and the emperor.
These words of the Pope satisfied the imperial party but
they came too late for the Bishops to act upon them. Only
a short time before, the Estates of Belgium, assembled under
the presidency of the Cardinal of Mahnes, had proclaimed their
sovereignty and the freedom and independence of their
country.^ Consequently the Bishops were no longer able to
satisfy the Pope's desire, as they considered it their duty to
recognize the new political constitution that had just been
inaugurated. In their reply to Pius VI. of March 8th, 1790,
they defended their position ^ by referring to the numerous
attempts at pacification that had been made to no purpose,
and by describing the unjust oppression of the subjects which
had found expression in the closing of churches and religious
houses and in the ruthless violation of all the basic national
agreements. No wonder that the people had lost all confidence
in the emperor's word and that the Bishops no longer had the
power to recall them to the desired obedience. " We cannot
but be convinced that all that has happened had to be done
* Gendry, IL, 44; Verhaegen, 2645^^.
* Wolf, he. cit., 634 seqq. ; Verhaegen, 276 seq.
ELECTION OF LEOPOLD II. 75
by the nation, and rightfully so. Your Holiness would be as fully
convinced as we are, were You to see the courage and military
efficiency, the institutions and constitutional laws that the
nation has already been able to give to the new State." It was
therefore more than ever their duty to confine themselves to
things spiritual and moral. " Allow us, Most Holy Father, to
have no other concern than to drive off the wolf from the fold
and to keep at bay a pestilence that already threatens to
infect us."
Thus it was that in the last weeks of his life, after years of
restless reforming activity, Joseph H. had to witness at least
the partial collapse of the structure he had built so optimistic-
ally. Exactly a month after the Belgian proclamation of
independence, and after he had had to withdraw a series of
reforming laws he had devised for Hungary, on January 28th,
1790, the last hour also struck for his own life on earth.
There was one last brief sequel to the Austrian supremacy in
Belgium. After the victorious advance of the Austrian General
Bender ^ the Estates, in their fear of the French Revolution,
created Emperor Leopold H. Duke of Brabant on May 30th,
1791.2 After Leopold's early death, however, his successor,
Francis H., was unable to prevent the country being occupied
by the armies of the Revolution. After the battles of 1794
Belgium was annexed to the French Republic,^ and the union
was confirmed by the treaties of Campo Florio and Luneville.
(3)
The Diet of the German Electors which met in 1790 and
which was to raise to the imperial throne Joseph H.'s brother,
Leopold of Tuscany, had to direct its attention, above every-
thing else, to the threat of a war that would involve the whole
of Europe. The Papal Secretary of State, in his letter to the
Catholic Electors, also stressed the importance of the forth-
1 Verhaegen, 295 seqq.
2 Gendry, II., 50. Cf. PiRENNE, V., 488 seqq.
3 Verhaegen, 334 seqq.
76 HISTORY OF THE POPES
coming election, not only for the stability of the Church but
also for the peace of Europe.^
On this occasion, as on previous ones, an ancient Papal right of
sending a legate to the Diet was exercised. Caprara, the nuncio
to Vienna, was instructed to go to Frankfurt in this capacity,^
and the Bavarian Elector in particular was asked to lend him
his support.^ Pacca, the nuncio to Cologne, who was instructed
by the Pope to act as a silent observer of the negotiations and
proceedings in the imperial city, relates in his memoirs how
unimportant the Holy Father's representative was made to
appear, despite all the honours that were paid him in public
and all the display he made on his own account.^
The impotence of the Papal legate was more than ever
regrettable on this occasion, since it was feared that the aim
of the Ems punctators to have the German nunciatures done
away with altogether might be brought up for discussion by
the electoral college. Karl Theodor of Bavaria in particular
must have been perturbed lest the nunciature that had been
set up in Munich after so much trouble should be argued about
in the assembly. As soon, therefore, as he heard from Zoglio
of Caprara's appointment as legate to Frankfurt, he instructed
the Bavarian envoys to the Diet to keep in close touch with
the Papal representative, " to second him and support him in
whatever business he may have in hand by every possible and
practical means ", and to see that he was received and treated
in a worthy manner.^ The most important of the Bavarian
1 *The Papal Secretary of State to Karl Theodor, also to the
three Rhenish Electors (Nunziat. di Germania, 686, loc. cit.).
Cf. Joseph Muller, Das Friedenswerk der Kirche in den letzten
drei Jahrhunderten, I., Berlin, 1927, 247 seq.
2 *Cifra al Caprara, June i, 1790 {loc. cit.).
3 *Brief to Karl Theodor, May 29, 1790 (original in the State
Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz 393/4). Ibid, also Caprara's
♦letter to the Elector of August 29, and his *reply of September
17, 1790, also the Elector's *letter of thanks to Pius VI. and
Zelada, of the same day.
* Pacca, Memorie storiche, 130-5.
s *Karl Theodor to the delegates to the Diet, OberndorfT and
THE OPENING OF THE DIET. 77
instructions for the Diet was that in the conference on the
imperial capitulation no addition detrimental to the organiza-
tion of the Papal nunciatures was to be tolerated.^
The Diet, convened for July 1st, was finally opened at the
beginning of August, after the lengthy preliminary ceremonies
had been performed.^ But even before this the talks on
current ecclesiastico-political questions had reached a certain
stage of development. In the course of the visits and return-
visits of the various electoral envoys the representatives of the
Rhenish Archbishops had hinted that on the question of the
nunciature they were not intending to maintain their former
obstructive attitude ; on the contrary, if their ordinary,
unrestricted jurisdiction and the proposed synodal courts were
recognized, they were quite prepared to drop all their other
desiderata.'^ The Bavarian representative was asked to bring
this pacific attitude to the knowledge of the Papal legate. Karl
Theodor's ambassadors lost no time ^ in coming to an under-
standing with Caprara, who had arrived on July 28th, ^ and
the latter was soon in direct negotiation with the envoys from
Cologne and Mainz. ^ Cologne, however, dechned to acquaint
the nuncio with its desiderata, which as yet were only provi-
sional, and feared that a continuation of these confidential
talks would arouse the suspicion of the other Courts.'
These first attempts to come to an arrangement having
failed the Bavarian embassy was again asked at the beginning
of August by the representatives of the three ecclesiastical
Electors to smooth the way, in conjunction with the secular
Hertling, March 12, 1790 (State Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz
138/12).
1 *Instruction to the delegates to the Diet, May 12, 1790
{ihid.).
2 Information on this, among other matters, in the *Diarium
of the Bavarian envoys {ibid., 138/6).
* *Diariiim for July 24 and 26, 1790.
* *Ibid., for July 31, 1790.
* *Ibid., for July 28, 1790.
* *Ibid., for August i and 2, 1790.
' *Ibid., for August 2, 1790.
78 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Electors, for a mediation and settlement of " the differences
that have existed for several years between the Roman Cm-ia
and the said three Archbishops ". Further inquiries, how-
ever, showed that Prussia had objections to Bavaria, an
interested party, being the arbitrator in the case. The appre-
hension felt by the envoys from Munich lest a Protestant
Power should act as intermediary in a purely Catholic matter ^
was allayed by Karl Theodor, who proposed that the whole
electoral college or at least the three Electorates concerned
should vote for the mediator of their choice.^
Unfortunately the negotiations soon came to a standstill.
Mainz even refused at first to accept from the hands of the
Papal legate the Brief accrediting him to the Diet, and it only
consented to do so at the earnest plea of Bavaria.^ When the
Brief was read out afterwards at one of the sessions the Mainz
delegate did not omit to emphasize that this did not mean
that the legate's competency was recognized in any way.*
Nor did a visit paid by Caprara to the Court of the Mainz
electorate at Aschaffenburg, where he was paid every kind of
honour,^ seem to ease the situation.
On August 11th the electoral delegations entered the Romer
in solemn procession, and the conference was opened. After
the usual formalities, such as the verification of powers, the
compilation of standing orders, and the promulgation of the
edict of emigration, the delegates proceeded to discuss the im-
perial capitulation, taking as a basis the form adopted in 1764.
The sessions of the electoral college, twenty-four in all, were
^ *Both envoys to Karl Theodor, August 2, 1790 {loc. cit.,
138/12). Prussia suggested Brunswick instead.
* *Karl Theodor to the envoys on August 28, 1790 (ibid.).
But in any case, he stipulated in this letter, the nuncio must
approve of whatever arrangement was made, and the recipients
of the letter must consult him in advance.
* *Diarium for August 6 and 7, 1790.
* There was question of the meaning of the word munus in
the Brief. Cf. *election protocol for August 18, 1790 {ibid.,
138/11).
' *Diarium for August 11 and 12, 1790.
THE IMPERIAL CAPITULATION 79
held thrice weekly and lasted from August 1 1th to October 4th,
1790.^ More time was taken up with the amendments of the
capitulation proposed by the Electoral States than with any
other topic, article 14 on the ecclesiastical constitution and
relations with the Curia being discussed at length. Similar
motions were proposed by Cologne and Mainz for all five
paragraphs.
In the first place the retention and execution of the
concordat with Eugene IV. was demanded, whereby, at the
request of the Bohemian crown, the ecclesiastical treaty with
Nicholas V. was included. When various grievances were
specified, especially those concerned with benefices, Bavaria
voted for the retention of the existing text, whereupon Saxony
referred to the forthcoming discussion of these points at the
Diet of Ratisbon. Brunswick giving its assent at a later
sitting, with the reservation of all its sovereign rights, the
proposal was adopted, though only in the last place. The
other questions were discussed more expeditiously. Thus an
adjustment of the ecclesiastical processus was adopted, in so
far as territorial rights were not affected, Bavaria laying stress
on this. Further, the emperor was to see that the Diet's
resolutions on the nunciature affair were carried out swiftly.
It was unanimously agreed to prohibit appeals to an ecclesias-
tical tribunal in civil cases and to make a clear distinction
between ecclesiastical and civil cases of a criminal nature ;
the former were to be judged only by the Bishop, Archbishop,
or synodal court and were not to be taken further to a foreign
court of appeal. The Bavarian representative, however, asked
that these new courts should not be allowed to function
without the co-operation of the sovereign. ^
Thus the opportunity of setthng the old conflict once for all
was neglected ^ ; worse still, some notably stringent injunc-
^ Cf. the detailed *election protocols of the Bavarian delegates.
^ For all this v. the *election protocol for September 3-7, 1790.
' The feeling prevalent in Rome is described in the *report
made to Venice by the agent Pietro Donado on October 9, 1790 :
" Gli resultati della dieta di Franfort rispetto alio vertenti con-
troversie suUe giurisdizioni dei Nunzi Apostolici sono stati assai
8o HISTORY OF THE POPES
tions were inserted into the capitulation, against which Caprara
could do no more than protest in the Pope's name, which he
did, rather belatedly, on October 13th, 1790.i After his
solemn election on September 30th, Leopold II. confirmed
these agreements on oath.^
On October 10th the Pope received notice that the Grand
Duke of Tuscany had been elected emperor, and on November
7th Prince Schwarzenberg, the emperor's envoy extraordinary,
arrived in Rome and was granted the customary audience.^
That the assumption of power by this new protector of the
Church was viewed by the Pope with mixed feelings at so
critical a time is apparent from his allocution to the Cardinals
in the consistory of November 29th. After announcing the
election he expressed the wish that Leopold might follow the
example of Charles VI., who as emperor had revoked all his
previous anti-clerical edicts.'* It was not yet known whether
Joseph II. 's successor, whose unfriendly attitude towards
Rome had long been notorious, would continue to encourage
Josephist ideas.
At first it seemed that Leopold intended to take a different
Une. His attention being drawn by Cardinal Migazzi to the
unsatisfactory state of ecclesiastical life ^ he invited the
meno sfortunati di quelle che qui si temeva. Intanto furono
registrati i brevi pontifici ed ammesso, benche senza distinzioni,
11 Nunzio Mgr. Caprara a differenza della precedente occasione
in cui non ebbero luogo ne gli uni ne Taltro, ed essendosi stabilito
che le cause ecclesiastiche, le quali solevano essere appellate
inanzi, alia Nunziatura, saranno in avvenire decise da un tribunale,
ch' eletto verra soggettato airapprovazione del S. Pontefice,
sonosi remesse tutte I'altre vertenze alia dieta di Ratisbona."
State Archives, Venice.
^ The most important pirt of his protest in Ricard, Corres-
pondance du cardinal Maury, I., 43, n. i. The *text and the
relative *material in the Papal Secret Archives, Nunziat. di
Germania 686, Affari dell' art. XIV. e delle appcllazioni.
* *Diarium for October 4, 1790 {loc. cit.).
' Gendry, II., 46. ^-—
Ihid., 46 seq.
4
^ WoLFSGRUBER, Migazzi, 743 seqq.
LEOPOLD IL S ECCLESIASTICAL POLICY 01
Bishops so soon as April 9th, 1790, to set down their chief
grievances within two months — an invitation eagerly accepted
by Migazzi ^ and most of the episcopate. But of the many
hopes that were raised very few were realized. On November
8th the memorials he had received were handed over by the
emperor, with a request for its opinion, to the same Ecclesias-
tical Court Commission that during the previous decade had
originated the measures that had been so hotly contested.
There could be little doubt, therefore, about the final decision.
In the judgment of the commission the episcopal proposers
were guilty as a body of interference with, and encroachment
on, the rights of the sovereign and of aiming to increase their
revenues. This opinion was evidently approved by the
emperor, for when his imperial resolution finally appeared on
March 17th, 1791, ^ it was substantially a confirmation of
Joseph II.'s ecclesiastical legislation. Migazzi 's further
protests were without effect.^
Leopold II. had therefore been determined from the start
to follow his brother's policy. Of a quieter and more careful
disposition than his predecessor, he was more inclined to make
concessions in the political field,* but on Church matters he
had no intention of giving way. The only concession he did
make was forced upon him in consequence of material mishaps
and dubious financial agreements. This was the closing of the
State-controlled general seminaries, which he announced on
May 20th, 1790, to take effect at the end of the current
scholastic year.^ Thenceforward the episcopal and monastic
schools — the latter only with important restrictions — were
1 He performed the task more thoroughly than any of the
others {ibid., 745 seqq.).
2 Ibid., 755.
3 Ibid., 756 seqq.
* Delineation of his character in Ranke, Die deutschen Mdchte
und der Fiirsienbund {Werke, 31/32), 4095^5'. A surprising
confession of constitutionalism is to be found in so early a letter
as that of January 25, 1792 {Leopold II. und Marie Christine.
Ihr Briefwechsel, 83-86).
^ WoLFSGRUBER, loc. cit., 759 seqq.
82 HISTORY OF THE POPES
allowed to function again, but Migazzi's vigorous remon-
strances against the other regulations regarding the syllabus
laid down by Joseph II. had not the slightest effect. The spirit
that reigned in the University of Vienna may be gauged by
some of the theses propounded there : on the primacy of the
Pope, against the celibacy of the clergy, and in favour of the
extension of the royal placet to dogmatic questions.^
However, Leopold II. 's reign was very short. On March 1st,
1792, Francis, his son and future successor, had to inform the
electoral diet that his imperial father had passed away after
only two days' illness. ^ A few days later invitations to another
imperial election in Frankfurt were issued.^ This was destined
to be the last election, for the empire that had endured for over
a thousand years was nearing its end.
The political situation having seriously deteriorated since
1790, the princely electors agreed to have the imperial throne
reoccupied as quickly as possible. At their unanimous request,
the electoral congress, which had been appointed for July 3rd,
was put forward a whole month. It was also agreed to make
no alteration in the previous capitulation, but to take it over
as it stood.*
Pius VI. sent as his legate to the Diet the vahant opponent
of the French Revolution, the Abbe Maury, ^ conferring on
him as his envoy the dignity of Archbishop of Nicae. The
Catholic Electors, Karl Theodor in particular, were again
asked for their support. The Bavarian ambassador to the Diet
received instructions in conformity with this request.^
1 Ibid., 778 seq.
2 The letter *to Karl Theodor, for example, is in the State
Archives, Munich, Kasten schwarz 127/9.
3 *0n March 12, 1792 [ibid., 138/1).
4 Cf. the *Elector of Mainz to Karl Theodor, April 24, 1792,
and the *instruction to the Bavarian delegacy (ibid.).
« For Maur>', see below, p. 118 ; Gendry, II., 206; Pacca,
Memorie sioriche, 147.
« *Brief to Karl Theodor of May 17, 1792, *his letter of thanks
to the Pope, of June 2, and *Ietter to the delegacy, of June 4,
1792 {loc. cit., Kasten schwarz. 138/1).
ELECTION OF FRANCIS II. 83
Maury, having been secretly instructed to work against the
anti-ecclesiastical movements in the Rhenish archbishoprics
when on his way to Frankfurt, utilized the opportunity to call
on the three Metropolitans. It was also his intention to press
for the cancellation of the additions to article 14 of the capitu-
lation of 1790. He sent a long report to Rome ^ on the friendly
reception accorded him by the Mainz Elector, who attached
great importance to the discrediting of the Congress of Ems,
but evaded discussion of any other of the outstanding
questions. As for amending the capitulation, the critical
situation, which threatened the Rhenish territories in particu-
lar, precluded any question of it. At the Court of Trier no
conversation of any importance took place.- The Archbishop
of Cologne, on the other hand, was against altering the capitu-
lation for the reasons already stated and even entered into
a defence of the Gallican principles ; he was prudent enough,
however, to appear to be willing to listen to reason when the
nuncio, although himself a Frenchman, showed him the
danger of nationalizing the ecclesiastical organization on the
French model.^ In any case, Maury was certain that he would
not be able to carry through his commission in Frankfurt,^
even if Cologne did try to come to an arrangement there with
the nuncio on the other questions.^
The electoral conferences finally began in the imperial city
on June 18th, and this time only ten sessions were necessary.^
It was agreed at once that the election should take place
on July 5th,' which left hardly any time to discuss the
1 Report of June 22, 1792, from Frankfurt, in Ricard, loc. cit.,
29 seqq. Cf. Hist.-polit. Blatter, CVIII. (1891), 838 seqq.
2 RiCARD, loc. cit., 36.
^ Ibid., 36 seqq.
* For his difficulties in the matter of etiquette, v. ibid., 44 seqq.,
47 seqq. ; for the edict of emigration, 51 seqq.
5 Ibid., 58 seqq.
' For particulars, v. the *Diayiitni and the *protocols of the
Bavarian delegacy {loc. cit.).
' *Protocol for June 20, 1792 [ibid.).
84 HISTORY OF THE POPES
capitulation. Some amendments (not to article 14) pro-
posed by Brunswick were rejected and, at the request
of the Bavarian Elector, the text of 1790 was retained
unaltered.^
When the electoral ambassadors met for their final con-
ference on July 16th after Francis II. had been duly elected
and crowned,^ they were informed by the president that
Maury, the Papal legate, had handed to the principal Mainz
delegate a formal protest against the additions made in 1790
to article 14 ^ and to article 1 regarding the maintenance of
the principles of the Peace of Westphalia.* The archiepiscopal
ambassador, however, had returned the document unopened
to the legate.^ Maury's protest was merely a repetition of
a statement made by Caprara after the Diet of 1790,^ and he
hit on a very courteous way of making it known : at an
evening reception given by the emperor he distributed to the
ambassadors and guests what purported to be copies of his
^ *Protocols for June 22 and 25, 1792 {ibid.).
2 Cf. the *reports of the Bavarian delegates for July 6 and 16,
1790 {ibid.). The election was on July 5, the coronation on
July 14. For the audience given to the nuncio, v. his report of
July 16, 1792, in RiCARD, I., 69 seqq.
^ See above, p. 79.
* The reference is presumably to the Prussian motion in the
session of August 16, 1780 (restriction of the episcopal and
archiepiscopal jurisdiction) and that of Brunswick, of August 18
(territorial rights of the sovereign in religious affairs). Cf. the
♦protocols for these days in the State Archives, Munich, Kasten
schwarz 138/11 and 620/376.
^ *Protocol for July 16, 1792 {loc. cit., Kasten schwarz,
138/1).
* " Maury . . ., Protestatio et reservatio in comitiis electoralibus
pro electione novi Romanorum regis et imperatoris congregatis
exhibita," of July 9, 1790 (Bibl. Vallicelliana, Rome, Mon. stor. Z.
126-133 ; Gendry, II., 206, n. 3) ; also as enclosure in the
♦report sent to Venice by Pietro Donado on August 4, 1792 (State
Archives, Venice). Maury had the text ready for printing on
July 9 {cf. RiCARD, I., 67).
FRANCIS II. 'S RELATIONS WITH ROME 85
latest work.^ Previously, when the nuncio had approached the
Archbishop of Mainz on the possibility of altering the text he
was told that it was too late then for anything to be done in
that Diet.2
The Pope, after receiving notification of the election,
announced it to a consistory on September 24th and expressed
his confidence that in view of the gravity of the situation the
new emperor would use his great authority for the honour of
God and the protection of the Church. ^ The traditional
celebrations in thanksgiving for the election took place in due
form, this being the last time St. Peter's and the Papal palaces
were illuminated in honour of a German emperor.*
Pius VI.'s confident statement was not at first belied, so far
as Francis II. 's relations with Rome were concerned. Migazzi
never tired of pointing out to the emperor the root of the evil
that had been establishing itself for a decade, and he criticized
severely the Josephist reforms. In the summer of 1794 he
condemned them in the strongest possible terms in the en-
deavour'to bring the young emperor to a decision.^ But
Francis, like his predecessors, left these matters largely in the
hands of officials who favoured Josephist ideas,^ and so, as
before, the authority of the Austrian Bishops, when not
actually slighted, was ignored. Migazzi's incessant protests
had no real success. As before, the State ruled within the
Church and conceded few alleviations. Among the latter may
be reckoned the permission to celebrate a jubilee year in the
archdiocese of Vienna in 1795, and the introduction of the
Forty Hours' Prayer and other pious practices. Finally even
retreats and missions, with certain restrictions, received the
sanction of the State, which was still considered indispensable.'
1 Maury's report of July 20, 1792 (Ricard, I., 75 seq.).
2 Maury's report of July 6, 1792 {ibid., 63 seqq.).
^ Allocution in Brunner, Theolog. Dienerschaft, 238 seqq. ;
Gendry, II., 207.
* Particulars in Brunner, 236 seq.
* WOLFSGRUBER, 783.
* Ibid., 786.
' Ibid., 860 seq., 868 seqq.
86 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Joseph II. 's ecclesiastico-political system was thus main-
tained under his two successors, though the first fury of the
attack had somewhat abated. In the Austrian hereditary
lands, even after the dissolution of the German Empire, the
principles of Erastianism were carried over into the next
century and even flourished anew.
CHAPTER III.
The Church in France at the End of the Ancien Regime —
The Outbreak of the Revolution — The Abolition of
Ecclesiastical Privileges.
Viewed externally, the French Church on the eve of the
Revolution was perhaps the most brilliant and most powerful
in the world. Italy excepted, probably no other country
possessed so many glorious churches filled with works of art
and treasures of every kind. In every province there were
numerous abbeys and monasteries, and religious confraterni-
ties flourished in the cities. Religious ceremonies were per-
formed with great pomp and splendour, especially processions,
the most impressive being that of Corpus Christi.^
The Huguenots having been forbidden to celebrate their
services in public since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
by Louis XIV., and as the edict of toleration issued at the
end of 1787 had granted them only civic rights, withholding
official recognition of their religion, the Catholic Church was
still the only legitimate one, as it alone possessed the right to
hold its services in public.^
^ For what follows, cf. P. De la Gorge, Hist, religieuse, I.,
2 seqq., and the full account given by Sicard, L'ancien clerge de
France, I. : Les eveques avant la Revolution, Paris, 1890, 4th ed.,
ibid., 1905, 5th ed., ibid., 1913. Our quotations are taken from
the 4th edition.
^ Louis XVI. 's edict of toleration granted legal validity to the
birth, marriage, and death certificates furnished by the Huguenot
clergy. Their form of worship was not expressly allowed, nor was
it forbidden ; what was forbidden was to molest them on the
plea of religion. The edict, therefore, was " an immense advance
and a great benefit to the Protestants " {v. Schott in the Hist.
Zeitschr., LXL, 490). Although the only religion to be expressly
recognized in the edict was the Catholic one, the edict also
contained the first limitation of the Catholic Church's absolute
87
88 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Its Bishops, many with highly aristocratic titles, were of
great social and political importance. They were next in rank
to the king. Special privileges were enjoyed by the clergy in'
respect of their legal competence, also considerable alleviations
from taxation, though these had long ceased to be so great as
to render them completely tax-free.^ In the latter half of the
eighteenth century some of their other privileges had also been
diminished in various ways through the influence of the un-
believing philosophers and the pressure of public opinion, but
the Church was still sufficiently rich and powerful to retain its
brilHant position till the eve of the Revolution.
The Church's wealth, though nowhere near so vast as was
estimated by many contemporary and later wTiters,^ was
certainly very considerable. Many of the historical sources
being unrehable, an accurate valuation is far from easy. In
1791 the Marquis de Montesquiou, who is largely to be trusted,
authority [cf. E. Champion in the Revolution Frangaise, 1903,
Juillet). At first there was some opposition to the edict, and then
it was accepted by the Parlements and the clergy, though the
latter's spokesman did express to the king its dismay that such a
law should have been made without reference to the clergy or the
Pope [cf. ScHOTT, lac. cit., 421 seq. ; Wahl, Vorgeschichte der
framos. Revolution, II., 200). When the matter was mentioned
by the Pope to Cardinal Bernis, the French ambassador, he was
given the reassuring reply " que la chose est juste et necessaire,
qu'elle ne nuit en rien a la Religion dominante, et qu'on a ecarte
jusqu'aux apparences du culte public " {v. Masson, Bernis, 451).
In France the edict was received with no hostility, but also with
scant approval ; v. L. Mazoyer, in Bitll. de la Soc. de I'hist. du
protestantisme frangais, LXXX. (1930), 41-73.
1 De la Gorge, I., 3 seqq.
2 Barbier [Journal, III., 208) maintains that at the time of
Louis XV. a third of the country was in the hands of the Church ;
Bourgeois [Die franzds. Revolution, Stuttgart, 1922, 34) says
only a fourth ; but both exaggerate. Actually only one-tenth
at the very most was owned by the Church [v. Hist. Zeitschr.,
CXXX., 137 ; Wahl, loc. cit., I., 97 ; F. Wolters, Studien iiber
die Agrarzustdnde in Frankreich, in Schmollers Staatswiss. Forsch-
ungen, XXII., 5, Leipzig, 1905).
THE WEALTH OF THE CHURCH IN FRANCE 89
assessed the Church's property in real estate, farms, forests,
and buildings, at about three thousand million francs, the
forests alone being valued at 392 millions. If the profits from
the forests are calculated at 2 J per cent, the value of the non-
productive buildings at 100 millions, and the profit from the
rest of the property at 3 per cent, the total revenues amount
to 85 millions. In addition, the tithes may be reckoned at
80 millions, and the revenues of certain bishoprics and abbeys
at 15 millions. This gives a total annual income of 180 million
francs. 1
But attached to this wealth of the Church there were mani-
fold commitments. Firstly at the great decennial assemblies
of the clergy free-will offerings {dons gratuits) were voted to
the State, amounting to about 10 million francs a year. Then
there were other large sums that were frequently lent by the
clergy to the State, on which the said 10 millions were often
the " interest ", so that it was said with just cause that the
Church had often lent the monarchy money a fonds perdu.^
There were still other ways in which the Church's property
(to which every class of the population had contributed) was
liberally expended to the best advantage of the community.
There being as yet no budget for education, the cost of main-
taining the primary and secondary schools was largely borne
by the Church. The Bishops of the eighteenth century were
no less zealous in this respect than their predecessors, especially
when the expulsion of the Jesuits had put many of the schools
out of action. In spite of every willingness to make sacrifices,
however, they found it impossible to repair completely the
grievous harm caused by the sudden closing of over a hundred
colleges, for many of the other Orders were unable to supply
the necessary staff. Nevertheless, in 1789, thanks to the
Bishops, there were 562 grammar schools in France, with over
72,000 pupils, 40,000 of whom were receiving their education
either wholly or partially free of charge. Of these schools 178
were conducted by the regular clergy, the remainder by
seculars. Montesquiou, who had a first-rate knowledge of the
1 De la Gorge, I., 10 seqq., 12. ^ Jhid., 6 seq.
go HISTORY OF THE POPES
situation, relates that the Revolution deprived the grammar
schools of revenues amounting to 30 million francs, so great
was the sum spent on education by the Church, with no
assistance from the State. In addition the Bishops had to
maintain their seminaries, of which in 1789 there were 165. ^
Far greater still were the disbursements made by the Church
for charitable objects. At the time in question it was the only
charitable institution in the country, and it had been engaged
in this work for centuries on the most generous scale and in
every conceivable manner. In the eighteenth century the
majority of the Bishops were still active in this direction.
Abundant evidence of this is supplied by the various diocesan
histories. The poor and needy were generously supported, not
only by such wealthy Bishops as Christophe de Beaumont and
De Juigne of Paris and De Durfort of Besan^on, but also by
those with more modest incomes, such as De Pressy of
Boulogne. The death, in 1790, of Bishop de Fumel of Lodeve
was much lamented by the people, to whom he had been a true
father for forty years. ^ The historian of the diocese of Beziers
found it impossible to enumerate all the works of charity
performed by Bishop Claudius de Nicolai during his twenty
years of office. To relieve the distress of the population of Albi
at the time of the floods and later, during the severe winter of
1766, Cardinal Bernis gave away everything he had and
incurred in addition a debt of 150,000 francs. Similar self-
sacrifice was displayed at Amiens by Bishops De la Motte and
De Machault, at Verdun by Des Nos, at Tulle by De Saint-
Sauveur, at Montauban by De Breteuil. The inhabitants of
Orange still retain an affectionate remembrance of Bishop
Du Tillet, who visited the hospital and the prison at the
beginning of every month and performed many other works of
1 SicARD, Les eveques, I., 427 seqq., 441 seq., where there is a
long list of special works on the subject. See also Sicard,
L'iducation morale et civique avant la Revolution, Paris, 1884 ;
id., Les Etudes classiques avant la Revolution, ibid., 1887.
* SiCARD, Eveques, I., 385 seq. For Beaumont, see the mono-
graph by E. RjfeGNAULT, Paris, 1882, and Duplessy, Pans
religieux, 421.
THE FRENCH EPISCOPATE QI
mercy. Of a similar character were De Rosset de Rocozel de
Fleury, Bishop of Chartres, his brother Henri-Bernardin, who
graced successively the sees of Tours and Cambrai, Amedee
de Broglie, Bishop of Angouleme, De . Besons, Bishop of
Carcassonne, De la Tour-du-Pin of Nancy, and Louis-Marie de
Nicolai of Cahors. Many noble and moving deeds are related
of Cardinal De la Rochefoucauld, Archbishop of Rouen, and of
De Becdelievre, Bishop of Nimes. Almost everywhere the
Bishops took the lead when help was wanted. Often it was
they who founded fire insurances, loan societies, and, above
all, lying-in and other hospitals. In the terrible winter of
1788-89 they did their utmost to lessen the sufferings of the
people, especially their hunger.^
Unhappily, however, this bright picture was marred by only
too many blemishes, which were largely due to the social and
political position of the Bishops. In consequence of the
Government's abuse of the concordat of 1516, the higher
positions in the Church had become more and more the
exclusive property of the nobles. Under Louis XIV. bishoprics
were still being given to clerics of the middle class, but under
Louis XV. and Louis XVI. the nomination of aristocrats had
become a regular system. ^ Massillon's dictum that the Church
was not in need of great names but of great virtues had been
quite forgotten. The Court thought only of providing for its
favourites. The nobility, now in a critical situation, regarded
the higher ecclesiastical posts as so much booty. Certain
bishoprics, abbacies, and canonries became the heirlooms of
great families. The appointment of a bourgeois to the little
see of Senez in 1774 was so exceptional that it created quite
a stir. At the outbreak of the Revolution there was not a
bourgeois left among the 130 Bishops of France.^ This was
^ SiCARD, loc. cit., ^8^ seq., -^g^ seqq., ^og seq., 416 seq. Cf.
GuGLiA, Konservative Elemente, 92 seq. ; De la Gorcb, I., 74.
For the charitable activity of the Archbishop of Aix, Boisgelin
de Cice, see his biography by E. Lavaquery, 2 vols., Paris, 1921.
* SiCARD, loc. cit., I., ^ seqq., lo seqq., 16 seqq.
' We have not included the four bishoprics of the Comtat
Venaissin and the five bishoprics of Corsica.
92 HISTORY OF THE POPES
particularly regrettable in view of the rise of the middle
classes in the eighteenth century in all other spheres, only
the way to ecclesiastical honours being barred to them. The
Almanack Royal for 1788 shows that almost every great
family was represented among the Bishops : a Montmorency
was at Metz, a Rohan at Cambrai and at Strasbourg, a
Clermont-Tonnerre at Chalons-sur-Marne, a De la Tour-du-Pin
at Auch and Nancy, a La Rochefoucauld at Saintes, Rouen,
and Beauvais. The see of Rheims had been held since 1777
by Alexandre Angelique de Talleyrand, and in 1788 one of
the most gifted but most unworthy members of this old and
noble family, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, was presented
by Louis XVL to the see of Autun.
For a long time now the French episcopate of the Ancien
Regime had been judged by such unworthy dignitaries as
Rohan, Lomenie de Brienne, and Talleyrand, who were all
nominees of Louis XVL Recent research has exposed the
injustice of this view. Of the 130 French Bishops only a dozen
can be named whose unspiritual behaviour was a cause of
scandal.! There were others who set a splendid example, not
only in the matter of public charity but in other respects too ;
some in fact were really ideal characters.^ The majority
belonged to neither of these groups. Of mediocre character,
1 SicARD, in La France chretienne, Paris, 1895, 477 seqq. De la
Gorge (I., 47) mentions a dozen prelates as unworthy of their
position, SicARD ten. For Lomenie, cf. Perrin, Le cardinal
Lomdnie de Brienne, Paris, 1896 ; C. Cipolla, II viaggio letterario
del card, de Brienne in Italia, 1789-1790, in the Nuovo Archivio
Veneto. LXXXVIL (1912), 129-163. For Rohan, see the Papal
♦letters in Epist. 181, pp. 229 seq. ; 182, pp. 26, 102, iio ; 185,
pp. 70, 169 (Papal Secret Archives).
2 SiCARD {loc. cit.) picks out the following as worthy of distinc-
tion, besides those we have already mentioned on p. 90 : Durfort
of Besan9on, Reboul de Lambert of Saint-Paul-Trois-Chateaux,
Balore of Alais and Nimes, Saint-Luc of Quimper, Herce of Dol,
Neufville of Dax, Bona! of Clermont-Ferrand, Royfere of Castres,
Charterac of Alet. Cf. also Guglia, Konscrvative Elemente,
90 seqq.
WORLDLINESS OF THE FRENCH BISHOPS 93
often of a worldly disposition, with no liking for things purely-
spiritual, they took their pastoral duties too hghtly.^ As
things were, it could hardly have been otherwise, for these sons
of noble parentage were destined by their parents for the
Church while they were still mere boys, there being no question
of their choosing their own careers. They were hardly sub-
deacons before they were alloted the revenues of an abbey, and
as soon as they were priests their relatives were seeing to their
promotion to the rank of vicar-general. The holders of this
office were so numerous that the individual had httle to do.^
Family connexions and the favour of the Court finally
secured for them the desired bishopric, which they abandoned
for a more profitable one as soon as the occasion offered.^ Of
such pastors the strict fulfilment of their task was not to be
expected. The duty most frequently neglected was that of
residence, despite the ordinances of the Council of Trent,
compliance with which had been prevented by the Crown.-*
Nevertheless, even in the eighteenth century, there were still
1 " On peut faire deux parts : les eveques exemplaires, assez
clairsemes, mais trois ou quatre fois plus nombreux que les
indignes ; puis les autres qui ferment la masse at sent de moeurs
correctes, de piete tres-decente, de vertu moyenne, quoiqu'un peu
court pour qui doit montrer au peuple les voiesde Dieu " (P. De
LA GoRCE, I., 47). Burke was of this opinion, according to
SiCARD {L'ancien clerge, II., 99) : " Lorsque j'etais en France, je
suis certain que le nombre des prelats reprehensibles n'etait pas
considerable." Cf. also Taine's opinion, in the same place.
" SicARD (I., 314 seqq.) entitles his description of the situation :
" Legions de grands vicaires."
3 Rouen, Bayeux, Beauvais, Albi, Auch, and Toulouse were
rich bishoprics, with annual revenues of 100,000 livres. The
archbishopric of Narbonne brought in 160,000 livres a year, the
bishopric of Cambrai 200,000, Strasbourg 400,000. A dozen
other bishoprics had only 10-15,000 livres a year, the others a
mere 7000 livres. See De la Gorge, I., 42. Cf. Sicard, I., 104,
275 seq.
* Martin [Gallicanisnie , X.) considers the opposition of the
Crown to the reforming decrees of Trent to be one of the chief
causes of the Revolution.
94 HISTORY OF THE POPES
many Bishops who stayed faithfully with their flocks.^ It has
been estimated that this was true of about half of the episco-
pate. The other half ^ fell victim to the spell that Paris and
Versailles had cast upon the cultured Frenchman since the
time of Louis XIV. There all the life and splendour of the
kingdom was gathered round the throne ^ ; there only was it
possible to procure the rich benefices which, in accordance
with the concordat, were at the disposal of the Government.*
Even such prelates as had a genuine vocation to the ecclesias-
tical state considered themselves entitled to spend at least
part of the year in the capital, if only to maintain connexion
with their relatives and to transact diocesan affairs,^ and once
there, owing to the love of social life innate in every French-
man, they were always tempted to prolong their visit in-
definitely. To many of them, once they had tasted of this
magic potion, their diocese appeared as a land of " exile ",
from which they strove to escape as soon as possible back to
the interesting capital. Meanwhile they consoled themselves
with keeping up a lively correspondence with their friends in
Paris. Even the most trivial news was received with gratitude,
for all their thoughts were in Paris, not in their diocese.
Another reason why the residential obligation was neglected
was that many Bishops were so involved in temporal affairs
that a visit to the seat of government was indispensable. Thus
it was that even such worthy prelates as Louis de la Tour-du-
Pin, of Nancy, failed in this respect. What little regard was
paid to this obligation is shown by the fact that several
1 Examples are given by Sicard (I., 289 seq.).
2 De la Gorge, I., 43.
' Even Fenelon had said of Paris, " cette ville est devenue
tout le royaume."
* One who knew the situation said of the Pompadour's influence
in the distribution of benefices, " II est vrai que c'est M""® de
Pompadour qui donne tout aujourd'hui." Correspondant, XCIII.
(1921), 1015.
5 At times, such as in 1 764, a fourth of the Bishops were living
in Paris. In 1784, Louis XVI. forbade all the Bishops to leave
their dioceses without the royal permission. Sicard, I., 305.
THE JANSENIST SURVIVAL 95
Bishops delayed taking possession of their sees for as long as
two years ; some, indeed, postponed it so long that before
they could perform this function they were translated to
another see.^
In 1789 there were no longer any Jansenist Bishops, and
there were very few outward signs that Jansenism still existed.
As a theological and heretical sect it had been extinguished,
but its spirit still lived on, especially in the political world.
Paying no regard to the laws of Church or State, the Parlements
were doing their utmost to put into effect, in the ecclesiastico-
political field, the logical conclusions to be drawn from
Jansenism, which were making headway also in other Catholic
countries. Mightily emboldened by their victory over the
Jesuits, they now found powerful alhes in their fight against
Papal and royal authority in the unbelieving philosophers,
whose influence had been facilitated by the rebelhon of the
Jansenists against the Holy See and their puritanical ideas
about the reception of the sacraments.^
As has already been indicated, the overburdening of many
Bishops with purely temporal affairs was closely connected
with their social and political position, but instead of with-
drawing themselves as far as possible from such ties they
devoted themselves to them with such wholeheartedness that
it was said of one of them that he would have made a better
governor of a province than a spiritual leader. The advantage
accruing to the provinces and towns from the active interest
taken by the Bishops in the promotion of industry and the
construction of roads and canals was dearly paid for by the
neglect of spiritual duties, which received but little attention
from a prelate playing the role of a Turgot or a Necker. The
^ SiCARD (I., 276, 295 seqq.), who reminds us that Cardinal
Polignac died in 1741, without having ever visited his arch-
diocese, to which he had been nominated fifteen years
previously.
2 ScHiLL, Konstitidion " Unigenitus ", 299 seq. For the spread
of Jansenism in Italy, Austria, and Portugal, see our account.
Vol. XXXV., 375 seqq., 381 seqq., XXXVI., 278 seqq., 289 seqq.,
XXXVIII., 130 seqq.
96 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Archbishop of Vienne, Georges le Franc de Pompignan,
pointed this out very frankly in a letter to the Bishop of
Nantes, Fretat de Sarra. He lamented with justification the
worldliness of the episcopacy, described the new type of
administrator-bishop, which was becoming more and more
prevalent,^ and rebutted all the excuses that were being made
for not fulfilhng the obhgation of residence. Much harsher
language was used in the " Private Correspondence on the
Present State of Religion and the Clergy ", which appeared in
1781 and 1783. The prelates' passionate desire to play the
statesman was castigated with biting sarcasm. This kind of
administrator-bishop, they said, was a sort of half-caste, half
clerical, half lay. Dressed up as an ecclesiastic, he indulged
in a philosophic apostolate that consisted in clearing France
of all the Government's mistakes. This mania, which was
taking possession of the best intellects and was steadily
increasing, degraded the sanctuary to the level of an office
where industrial, commercial, and financial business was
transacted. The victims of this mania sat in their boudoirs
in their country seats and gave no thought to anything else.
They could manage everything successfully except their proper
business. There were not many of the old-style Bishops left,
who had more faith in the Gospels than in accounts and who
had no desire to be anything but spiritual pastors. The new
administrator-bishops, on the other hand, as it was said in
a pamphlet of 1788, all wanted to be Sugers, Richelieus, and
Mazarins.2 Thus the French episcopate was divided by these
two currents of thought into two separate parties, each of
which was convinced that its policy was in the best interests
of the Church and the country. The one, distrusting any kind
of innovation, confined itself to spiritual matters, the other,
which was in the majority, devoted all its energy to advancing
the cause of economic and political progress.^
^ (Euvres de Lefranc de Pompignan, II., 181 seqq., 235 seq.,
263 seq.
* SiCARD, I., I 'JO seqq.
* Ibid., 177.
THE FRENCH CATHEDRALS AND ABBEYS 97
Far more serious than these divergent aims of the Bishops
was the deep cleavage between the higher and lower clergy,
caused by the very unequal distribution of material and social
benefits.
Like the Bishops, the canons, of whom there was an abun-
dance in many of the cities, were very rich. The yearly revenues
of the chapter of Arras amounted to 150,000 livres, of Laon to
163,000, of Soissons to 166,000, of Besan^on to 130,000 ; those
of Le Mans, Amiens, and Beziers to over 100,000 each.^ Vast
revenues, especially in the northern districts, were also enjoyed
by the abbeys, of which there were more than a thousand in
France.^ The list was headed by Saint-Vaast at Arras, whose
estimated yearly income was 500,000 livres ; next came
Saint-Bertin, with 150,000 livres, Saint-Eloi with 130,000, and
Saint-Medard at Soissons with over 60,000. ^ The revenues
of many other abbeys were not public knowledge, but the
magnificence of their buildings and the extent of their proper-
ties were evidence enough. Inevitably, therefore, it was more
and more widely believed that the monks had entirely aban-
doned their ideal of poverty. Worse still, as a result of the
commendatory system, the wealth of these numerous abbeys
had been wholly diverted from its original purpose into the
hands of men who did not belong to the Order concerned or,
worse still, were not even clerics of any kind. There was no
question of abolishing the system, although it had become
a veritable curse, since even those who might have been
inclined to do so were themselves too deeply involved in the
practice, for it was with these benefices in commendam that
the Crown rewarded its numerous favourites. Now and then
the philosophers wrote about the situation in scathing terms,
1 Evidence in De la Gorge, I., 38.
^ 755 for men, 253 for women ; v. Hesseln, Diet, de la France
(1771), I., 3. There were about 25,000 male religious, and 35,000
female ; v. Madelin, La Revolution, 5, who estimates the seculars
at 60-70,000. This gives a grand total of 120-130,000.
' Deramecourt, Le clergd du diocese d' Arras, Boulogne et
Saint-Omer pendant la Revolution, I., 327, 329, 332 ; Masson,
Bernis, 5.
gS HISTORY OF THE POPES
but probably not with any serious intent, since many of the
beneficiaries were their friends and proteges. The worst
feature of the whole situation was the apparent inabihty of
the Holy See to remedy the evil. It feared that any step it
took would be answered by reprisals on the part of the secular
power and that it would meet with the opposition of the
higher clergy. Moreover, it was itself implicated in the system
in so far as it tolerated the transference of rich benefices to
Cardinals. Thus Cardinal Stuart held the abbeys of Anchin
and Saint-Amand, Cardinal Zelada the abbey of Marsillac, and
Cardinal Doria the wealthy abbey of Gorze, near Metz.^
In general there was no definite immorality in the French
abbeys, but rather a dangerous falhng away from strict
disciphne and a laxity in complying with the obligations of
holding services and reciting prayers which had been accepted
along with the various donations. The commendatory system
was one of the worst, but by no means the only evil. What
was possibly more pernicious was the infiltration of a worldly
spirit into the men's rehgious houses, where a real joy in their
vocation, especially among those who regarded it merely as
a livelihood, was often wanting.^ This was partly the reason
why the houses were so thinly populated. In 1789, of the
two hundred Cistercian monasteries only five had more than
forty inmates, another five more than twenty, and six more
than fifteen. In sixty-nine communities the membership had
shrunk to only three or even only one. We also know from
archival records that at the outbreak of the Revolution the
average membership of an abbey was barely more than seven
or eight.^ The sinking of the monastic population was also due
to the restrictions and obstructions attached to the reception
of novices by the Government in 1767. Several houses were
simply closed down, without reference to the Pope, by the
royal commission, whose moving spirit was the utterly worldly
^ De la Gorge, I., 19, 32.
* SiCARD, Le clergd de France pendant la Revolution, I.
L'effondrement, nouv. edit., Paris, 1912, 278.
* De la Gorce, 34.
THE NUNS AND CURES 99
Archbishop of Toulouse, Lomenie de Brienne. The losses
caused by the expulsion of the Jesuits had not been made good
by the other Orders, and yet it was sought to reduce the
numbers ! ^ In all this gloom the only cheerful spectacle was
provided by the congregations of religious women. Of their
35,000 members 3,000 belonged to abbeys or special founda-
tions, of the others 32,000 devoted themselves with admirable
zeal either to prayer and contemplation or — and among these
the Ursulines were most conspicuous — teaching and other
good works.^
The wealth enjoyed by the bishops, canons, and commen-
datory abbots must have made a very bad impression on the
less exalted clerics, since they had only too often to struggle
with grinding poverty. Whereas any number of prelates were
drawing an income of 100,000-400,000 livres a year and could
never spend enough on costly buildings and the like ^ — there
were some indeed, like Rohan, the Bishop of Strasbourg, who
simply threw the money away in a display of luxury — the
average income of a parish priest was no more than 800-1,500
francs. Those who were dependent on tithes were far worse off,
for when they were not paid, which was frequently the case,
they were on the verge of starvation. Then again, these parish
priests, who were mostly of peasant stock, had not only to
bear the whole burden of the cure of souls, but also had
various civil duties to perform, such as keeping the civil
register, superintending the village schools, announcing public
notices, and even serving summonses.*
Certain areas excepted, such as the dioceses of Le Mans and
Viviers and, in particular, the Franche-Comte,^ the conduct
1 Ibid., 75 seqq.
* De la Gorge, I., 74 seqq.
^ SiCARD, £veques, I., 80 seqq.
* De la Gorge, I., 23 seq., 28 ; cf. Sigard in the Correspondani,
1890, in the Compte rendu du congres scientif. international des
catholiques, section 5, Paris, 1891, 2545^^., and Clerge, I., 209.
For the living conditions of the lower clergy' before the Revolution
and the efforts to improve them, cf. Preglin, 379 seqq.
^ De la Gorge, I., 23 seq., and for the Franche-Comte,
TOO HISTORY OF THE POPES
of these lowly country-priests, whether as individuals or in
the performance of their duties, was good ; in some parts,
Lorraine, for example, it was excellent.^ In fact, the French
clergy as a whole was far better than is generally supposed. ^
Much harm was done by the lack of uniformity in the appoint-
ment to parochial offices. The right of presentation was shared
promiscuously by the king, the bishops, cathedral chapters,
hospital boards, and the gentry. In only a few places was it
vested in the diocesan bishop ; in the large diocese of Besangon
only a tenth of the 1,500 livings were at the Ordinary's
disposal.^
As most of the diocesan funds were in the hands of those
who took part in the appointment to offices, the village priests
had no hope of having their meagre pittances increased. With
what feelings they regarded their far better situated colleagues
in the towns and cathedral chapters, the inmates of the rich
abbeys near their own villages, and the luxury-loving Bishops,
it is easy to imagine.
Since nobody in France could avoid the influence of the new
ideas, it was not surprising that they spread apace among the
poor country-priests.* For them the temptation to embrace
J. Faivre in the Annates revolut. janv.-fdvr., 194. W. Michael,
however, observes quite rightly in the Hist. Zeitschr., CXI I., 676,
that Faivre 's reference in a general way to complaints and
pleadings is not entirely convincing.
^ F. D. Mathieu, L'ancien regime dans la province de Lorraine
et Barrois ^ Paris, 1907.
2 This was brought out by De Tocqueville {L'Ancien Regime
et la Revolution, Paris, 1856, 169), who preceded, and by Taine,
who followed, Sicard. See also Guglia, 95 seqq. The town clergy
was also quite good in several places. H. Ludwig bears witness
to this in the case of Strasbourg in his Strassburg vor hundert
Jahren (Stuttgart, 1888). On pp. 93 seq. he says that the clergy
" even in its lowest ranks possessed some gifted and scholarly
men who, with their solid training, combined in the exercise of
their vocation as much honesty and conscientiousness as a
genuinely Christian benevolence ".
3 De la Gorge, I., 21 seq., with much detailed evidence.
* Guglia, Konserv. Elemente, 260 seq.
THE COUNTRY CLERGY lOI
them was particularly strong, for not only had they to suffer
severely themselves under the unjust social conditions, they
also heard the continual complaints that were made by the
peasants about their situation. ^ The great wealth and the
inordinate extravagance of the privileged classes must have
provoked even the best-intentioned of these priests to rebel
against a social order that sanctioned these extremes. Natur-
ally they listened to proposals that promised an improvement. ^
Through the Nouvelles Ecclesiastiques ideas detrimental to the
Papal authority were disseminated among the clergy, and at
the same time the parish priests were stirred up against the
Bishops. In 1775 this journal was saying that since the
Council of Trent the Bishops had conspired among themselves
to suppress the rights of the ordinary priests, and the assertion
that the office of the parish priests had been instituted by God
Himself and that they were entitled to decide on matters of
faith, ^ must have enhanced their opinion of their own worth
as compared with that of the Bishops.
Among the clergy in the towns the new ideas had spread
far more widely still. Like most of the Bishops, they devoted
too much attention to terrestrial affairs. The scholars among
^ Taine's description of the wretched conditions of the peasants
{L'Ancien Regime, Paris, 1876, 429 seqq.) has been corrected in
several important respects by Wahl {Vorgeschichte, I., 85 seqq.),
though even his more favourable opinion is open to strong
misgivings, as is shown by H. Ludwig in the Hist. Zeitschnft
(XCVL, 85 seq.), where he aptly remarks that in a question of
this kind the peasants' opinion of their condition was more
important than the condition itself. For their feelings the
recently published Cahiers are certainly valuable evidence, but
they are not to be taken as a basis for a description of the
economic and social conditions of the provinces without being
very carefully scrutinized. See Musebeck in the Hist. Zeitschr.,
CIV., 171 seq. Cf. Denys-Biurette, La question religieuse dans
les Cahiers de 1789, Paris, 1919. The Cahiers have been published
in the Collection des documents inedits sur I'histoire dconomique
de la Revolution franfaise.
* De la Gorge, I., 94 seqq.
3 Cf. our account. Vol. XXXIX., 362.
102 HISTORY OF THE POPES
them studied for preference subjects that had no connexion
with their caUing, such as the diseases of the vine, potato-
growing, and magnetism. Highly enlightened on such matters
as these, they were wholly bhnd to the approaching catas-
trophe. Like everyone else, they read the works of the new
philosophers with relish. The effect this had upon them
showed itself most noticeably in their sermons. In many
places, instead of preaching the solemn truths of the Gospel,
they uttered moral platitudes culled from any and every
reUgion, and expounded a vague moral philosophy embroi-
dered with humanitarian maxims.^ In the course of the
eighteenth century, freemasonry, in spite of the prohibitions
of Popes Clement XII. and Benedict XIV., ^ had been on the
increase in every large town in France,^ not only among the
upper classes and the philosophic circles but also among the
bourgeois. In several dioceses, even the clergy, attracted by
its mask of humanitarianism, had sought and obtained
admission to its lodges. At Besangon not only several canons
but even Benedictines, Bemardines, and a Carmelite had been
initiated.'* The following incident shows the disastrous lack of
1 Maury, Essai sur I'eloquence de la Chaire, 80 seqq. ; De la
Gorge, I., 61 seq., 64 seq. Guglia {loc. cit., 94 seq.) reminds us
that here too there were exceptions, among them the excellent
Jacques Bridaine (d. 1767), whose sermons on eternity and on
the unworthy reception of Communion moved his hearers very
deeply. Cf. the examples given by Maury, loc. cit., 56 seqq., 461.
For Maury, v. Freib. Kirchenlex., IP, 1384.
« Cf. our account. Vol. XXXIV., 411, XXXV, 371.
' Cf. FiNDEL, Gesch. der Freimaurerei ('1900), 180 5^^^.;
Staatslex. II*, 226 seqq. ; Stimmen der Zeit, XCIII. (1917),
251 seq., XCIV. (1918), 29 seq. ; G. Bord, La Franc-Magonnerie
en France, I., 152 seq. ; Deschamps-Jannet, Les socUtes secretes
et la socidtd^, 2 vols., Paris, 1883. In many cases, it must be
said, the particulars given are not accurate enough. Bord {loc.
cit., I., 236) says of Louis XV. 's attitude towards freemasonry :
" II est tr^s probable que Louis XV. ne fut jamais initie, mais on
pout croire qu'il accepta le titre de protecteur insigne de I'Ordre."
* Sauzay, Hist, de la persecution relig. dans le ddpartement du
Doubs de 1789 a 1801, I., 12. In Arras too an Oratorian was
NO BISHOPS OF FORCEFUL CHARACTER IO3
uniform moral standards prevailing among the upper clergy.
When, in 1778, the Bishop of Quimper, Cotun de Saint-Luc,
censured a Franciscan for belonging to a masonic lodge,
De Conzie, Archbishop of Tours, a highly " enhghtened "
prelate, considered his attitude ridiculous.^
Not all the Bishops were so blind as this. Time and again
a note of warning was struck at the general assemblies of the
clergy by men of clearer vision. In 1762 the Archbishop of
Narbonne, De la Roche-Aymon, deplored the decay of faith
and the hbertinage of writers. Similar alarms were sounded
in 1775 and 1778 ; in the latter year the Bishops demanded
that steps be taken to protect religion and morality against
the excesses of the Press. At the same time they protested
against the banning of provincial councils and the suppression
of certain religious Orders. In 1782 the Archbishop of Aries,
Dulau, drew the Government's attention to the unrestricted
distribution of the works of Voltaire and Rousseau and to the
fact that immoral booklets had even been thrown into nun-
neries during the night. He demanded the revision of the law
of 1757 relating to the Press and remarked that a new dogma
was now being propounded, that of independence of any
authority.^
Unfortunately there was no Bishop of sufficiently outstand-
ing character to take the lead. Consequently there was no
joint action, only individual prohibitions of the works of the
philosophers and inadequate attempts to stem the flood of
irreligious and immoral writings by the circulation of good
books. ^ Apparently the hopelessness of the struggle was reahzed
by the upper clergy themselves, since in 1786 they decided to
suspend the grants they had made to learned churchmen for
a member of a lodge {v. Deramecourt, Le clerge dii diocese d' Arras,
I., 284), and there were priests who had joined lodges at Le Mans
and Bethune {v. D. Piolin, Hist, du diocese du Mans pendant la
Revolution, I., 6, and Beghin, Bithune pendant la Revolution, 46).
1 Gerin, La Commission des Rdguliers, in the Revue des quest,
hist., 1875, juillet, 113. Cf. our account, Vol. XXXVII. , 386 seq.
2 De la Gorge, L, 67.
3 Ibid., 68.
104 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the defence of religion. i The pastorals warning the faithful
against agnostic Hterature could have no lasting effect, as
they were mostly confined to remonstrances and admonitions
of a general nature, and as the Revolution approached they
showed no signs of increasing vigour or frequency. In 1775 an
observer far from hostile to the Church said of one such
pastoral that it was so colourless that it might just as well have
been addressed to Turks as to Christians.^ The Sorbonne also
took up the fight against " philosophy ", Voltaire and Hel-
vetius in particular, but with no success ; in any case its
influence was waning.^ In point of energy and vigour the
defence was no match for the attack. On the one side an
unlimited mass of destructive literature was unloaded on to the
nation ; on the other, especially after the expulsion of the
Jesuits, was a paucity of talent capable of rebutting it.* The
^ RocQUAiN, L'esprit revolut., 427.
- Ibid., 338 ; GuGLiA, 86.
8 Feret, La Faculte de theologie de Paris et ses doctrines, vols. VI-
VII., Paris, 1910.
* The most prominent of the writers who tried to refute the
views of the " enlightened ", Voltaire especially, in a popular
fashion, are discussed by Guglia (234 seq.), whose opinion is that
though they were not so insignificant and contemptible as
opponents represented them to be, they were far from being highly
talented and were certainly no match for a man like Voltaire.
(256) Guglia (259 seqq.) also describes the campaign waged against
the philosophy of enlightenment by the Jesuits in the famous
Journal de Trevoux, especially under the editorship of Fr. Berthier
(1745-62). For the Courrier d' Avignon, which was a serious
rival of the Gazette de France, v. Hatin, Hist, de la Presse, III.,
310. However much the Jansenistic Noitvelles Ecclesiastiques
denounced sensualist and atheistic wTitings to the authorities
(Guglia, 260), the mordant ridicule with which it censured the
luxuriousness and aristocratic prejudices of the clergy most
effectively prepared the lower clergy for the reception of the new
subversive ideas (De la Gorge, I., 49). It was seen only too
clearly at the outbreak of the Revolution that Jansenistic ideas
were still alive in these circles as well as in the Paxlements. See
Sicard, ^veques, I., 481.
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA IO5
unbelieving writers, who made a point of calling themselves
" philosophers ", did not leave unused the huge breach that
was being made in the conservative elements of the nation.
Their undermining operations met with little resistance from
the privileged classes, the frivolous aristocracy and the worldly
prelates, and their work was made still easier by the Govern-
ment's failure to take any serious counter-measures. The
following incident was typical. One of the chief means of
spreading unbelief was the encyclopedia that had been edited
since 1750 by Diderot and D'Alembert. On the appearance of
the last ten volumes of this massive work in 1765 the general
assembly of the clergy renewed its condemnation of it. The
Government, however, prohibited the publication of this
judgment because it included a defence of the Jesuits. The
publisher of the encyclopaedia, Le Breton, was made to supply
a list of subscribers and was confined in the Bastille for a week,
but the order that was issued at the same time, that all the
copies that had been delivered were to be called in, was
rendered nugatory by the king, Louis XV., who ordered a copy
because he wanted to know about the composition of gun-
powder, while the Pompadour was interested in the preparation
of cosmetics and the manufacture of silk stockings. The ency-
clopaedia being the best source of information on these
subjects, the confiscated copies were released and no further
objections were made to the production of the work.^
In these circumstances what was the use of the Parlement
continuing to hand over to the executioner the works of the
unbelieving philosophers ? ^ The influence wielded by these
writers had to be acknowledged by the Advocate General
Seguier in 1770, when proposing that action be taken against
a number of their more dangerous publications. " The
philosophers," he said, " have set themselves up as the
teachers of the human race. ' Freedom of thought ' is their
watchword, and we hear it repeated all over the world. With
1 Baumgartner, v., 470 seq. ; cf. our account, Vol. XXXV.,
369 seqq., XXXVII.. 366.
* GUGLIA, 57.
I06 HISTORY OF THE POPES
one hand they have tried to shake the throne, with the other
to overthrow the altars. Their object has been to bring about
a radical change in the public conception of our civil and
rehgious institutions. And this revolution has actually come
about. Kingdoms feel their old foundations being shaken, and
the peoples, seeing the destruction of all traditional principles,
are asking themselves in bewilderment by what mysterious
fate they have become so unlike their former selves But the
most deadly blows of these innovators have been aimed
against rehgion. Through innumerable writings they have
spread the poison of unbelief. Oratory, poetry, history,
romance, even dictionaries, are full of it. Hardly had their
writings become known in the capital when the provinces were
flooded with them. This contagious pestilence has even seeped
into the workshops of the artisans and the hovels of the poor." ^
Of the clergy the most seriously infected by the new sub-
versive ideas were those who had only donned the soutane
for the sake of the revenues and benefices that went along
with it. The latter they consumed without fulfilhng in any way
the conditions attached thereto. This host of parasites, calling
themselves ahhes whether or not they were priests, swarmed
in Paris particularly. Here they lived like men of fashion and
were prominent habitues of the salons. Contemporary
memoirs have much to say about their immorality and
unbelief. It was these men more than any others who brought
the clerical calling into disrepute and caused their fellow-
countrymen to hate it. The Church, then, still retained its
outward show of splendour, but its foundations were under-
mined.2 The clergy, riddled with worldliness and consequently
weak and disunited, was in no shape to withstand the coming
crisis.
1 ROCQUAIN, 278.
2 As the result of his studies, De la Gorge (I., 50) comes to
this conclusion : " Une fa9ade superbe, puis derri^re cette fa9ade
des batisses minees de toutes parts, telle etait au declin de
I'ancien regime I'image de I'figlise de France." Sicard's judgment
was similar {£veques, I., 2). Cf. C. Dejob, Les abbds el les abbesses
de la comedie fraitfaise et italienne dn 18 « siecle (1898).
ABSOLUTISM OF THE STATE I07
The body politic was in an even worse condition. The old
institutions were still nominally in force, but the foundations
had decayed, everything was breaking up, and the whole
structure threatened to collapse.
The fundamental disease from which the monarchy was
suffering was the absolutism of the State. Its foundations had
been laid by Richelieu and Mazarin, and Louis XIV. had
carried it to extremes. His will was the source of every right ;
taxes were levied, new laws made, and old ones altered,
according to his personal pleasure. He had even called for an
opinion as to whether, like the Mohammedan despots of the
East, he was the owner of every piece of ground in the king-
dom.^ All that the " Roi Soleil " had done to advance the
material prosperity of his country had been wrecked by his
foreign policy and his endless wars of aggression. On his death
in 1715 the national exchequer was hopelessly in debt in spite
of the heaviest possible taxation, and the people were reduced
to beggary ; in some places the only food available was leaves
and grass. 2 Even worse conditions were endured in the
regency of the dissolute Duke Philippe of Orleans (1715-23),
whose debauchery and irreligion did as much harm to the
royal prestige as John Law's over-issuing of paper money did
to the French finances. Louis XV. 's misgovernment, which
was particularly harmful after the death of the prudent
Cardinal Fleury in 1741, the baneful influence of the royal
mistresses, and the king's extravagance deprived the throne
of what little respect it still enjoyed, and France's military
and political importance also continued to decline. The bad
example set by the Court corrupted the whole of Society.
When Louis XV. 's immoral life came to an end on May 10th,
1774, a year after the most influential of the religious Orders
had fallen victim to the Bourbons, and a great impetus had
been given to revolutionary ideas. Count Mercy -Argenteau,
the Austrian ambassador, wrote an impressive account of the
last four years of the reign, culminating in the following
verdict : " Morality and decency are no more. There are no
1 Sybel, I*., 5. 2 Cf. below, p. 115.
I08 HISTORY OF THE POPES
principles now ; everything is left to chance. The burden of
shame that has been weighing down the nation has brought
about a universal despondency." ^
Louis XVI., Louis XV.'s grandson, came to the throne at the
age of twenty years, untouched by the corruption of the Court
and full of good intentions, but completely uninstructed in
political affairs. Unfortunately this young monarch, though
exceptionally benevolent, did not possess what was supremely
necessary at such a time of universal ferment : a firm and
decisive character and a true understanding of the situation.
The most urgent task, in his opinion, was the restoration of
the crippled finances, but any permanent improvement in this
direction was most unwelcome to the Parlements, which would
thereby' have lost their most convenient opportunities of
sharing in the government and legislation. ^
The long-standing feud between Louis XV. and the Paris
Parlement had resulted at the close of 1770 in the self-suspen-
sion of this haughty corporation, which hoped that the
Government would be forced to give way by the high court of
justice ceasing to function, for this brought all legal business
in France to a standstill. The attempt to repair the situation
by constituting a new high court, the so-called Parlement
Maupeou, came to naught, for after Beaumarchais had accused
it of venality it failed to command respect. Thus it was that
at the very beginning of his reign Louis XVI. was faced with
the difficult problem of deciding in favour of one or other of
these two Parlements. In 1774, in spite of every warning, he
^ Corresp. entre Marie-Therese et le Conite de Mercy- Argenteau,
p.p. Arneth et Geffroy, II., 231.
2 Wahl, Vorgeschichte, I., 185, 190, 233. There was also some
questionable complaisance on the part of the Church. In this same
year, 1784, there took place the death of Diderot, after Voltaire
the most active and influential of the Encyclopedists. Although
he had received his parish priest several times during his illness,
his friends maintained that he had persisted in his unbelief to
the last. He certainly never recanted. Neverthleess he was
buried with the rites of the Church. See Baumgartner, V.,
474 5^?-
THE PARIS PARLEMENT IO9
ordained the restoration of the old order. This initial mistake
v/as fraught with far-reaching consequences.^ In 1776 the fall
of Turgot, who had tried to set the administration of the
revenue to rights by means of vast reforms, led to the complete
supremacy of the Parlement, which was bound to result in
revolution. 2 The attitude of the Parlement during the Jan-
senist controversies had already been an indication of the
coming catastrophe. When Jansenism ceased to exist as a
sect, it fell back on the Galhcan theories : on March 31st, 1753,
every professor of theology was obliged by the Paris Parlement
to subscribe to the four articles of 1682.^ An even greater
impetus was given to the revolutionary movement by the
destructive doctrines of the philosophers, especially their new
theories about the function of the State. The attitude of the
Government, at first inconsistent and finally constantly
yielding, also contributed to the gradual lowering of the royal
authority. While giving every encouragement to reform, it
had not the strength to bring about the universal amelioration
of conditions that was necessary to save the situation.^ As
opposed to the apophthegm attributed to Louis XIV. and
generally accepted as the epitome of his regime — L'^tat c'est
moi ! — the cry that now arose with ever growing violence from
the meetings of the Parlements and the writings of the
litterateurs was " The people are the State ", " The legislative
authority by its very nature rests with the nation, or with the
majority of it." ^ Now on the verge of open bankruptcy and
crippled by the ever more reckless opposition of the privileged
^ Wahl calls this measure " the most momentous event in the
reign of Louis XVI." {loc. cit., I., 195, 232, 253).
2 Ibid., 260, 323. The reports of the Spanish ambassador,
cited by A. Scheibe in Die framosische Revolution (Gotha, 1909),
and other sources tend to show that Queen Marie Antoinette also
had a hand in Turgot's dismissal. See Segur, Au couchant de la
Monarchie, in the Revue des Deux Mondes, i fevr., 15 oct. I909-
^ SiCARD, Eveques, I., 453.
* Cf. the numerous documents cited by Wahl and enumerated
in the Hist. Jahrbuch, XXIX., 377 seq.
5 Wahl, II., 298 seq., 178, 174, 176, 179, 303, 54.
no HISTORY OF THE POPES
classes, the Government also finally decided to appeal to " the
good people ", as being the majority of the nation, to help it
fight against the two superior Estates. With the glaring
contrast between the life of the poor and that of the rich, the
doctrine that the Third Estate, which had hitherto been
nothing, was to seize all power into its own hands — the most
assiduous exponent of which was the Abbe Sieyes ^ — fell on
very fruitful ground. This doctrine was one of the chief motive
forces of the Revolution, which was essentially a struggle for
political power, first the Parlement, then the privileged classes,
and finally the Third Estate striving for supremacy in place of
the absolute monarchy.^ In ordering the Third Estate to send
to the assembly of the Etats Generaux twice as many deputies
as the other two Estates the Government in its blindness was
actually encouraging its aims. But whether the States-
General, which had not been convoked since 1614, were to
assemble separately, in three chambers, as before, or all
together in one, was left undecided. The crowning piece of
folly committed by the Government was to order the States-
General to assemble at Versailles, in the vicinity of the seething
capital, though it must have known that with no money and
no reliable troops it was in no position to defend its existence.^
When the deputies of the States-General met on May 4th,
1789, its proceedings were followed by the whole nation with
intense* excitement. Once more the ancient feudal State
appeared in all its glory, but this time the leading role was
played not by the clergy and nobility but by the Third
Estate, the representatives of the bourgeois and the farmers.
Among the deputies of the clerical Estate a deep cleavage
between the upper and the lower clergy was e\ddent from the
^ For Sieyfes, cf. the monograph by N^ton, Paris, igoo.
* Besides Wahl's arguments in Vols. I. and II., cf. Madelin's
opinion in La Revolution, 19.
" For the demoralization of the army, v. Sybel, I.*, ^4 seqq.
" Le Roi n'a pas la force de tete et la force dcs bayonnettes lui
manque," wTote one of the deputies on July 8, 1789 ; v. Madelin,
22.
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY III
start. The majority of the 208 parish priests were anxious to
improve their sorry lot and hoped to attain this object by
means of pohtical changes. After the Third Estate, which was
numerically superior to the other two, had formed itself into
a National Assembly on June 17th, appropriating the principle
of L'^tat c'est nioi ! and claiming the sole right of representing
the French nation, some of the nobility and clergy went over
to it.^ This victory was soon followed by another, when the
three Estates, which had hitherto held their meetings apart,
dehberated together. On June 23rd, 1789, Louis XVI. had
prohibited the union, but four days later, on the 27th, he
ordered it himself. With this the supreme authority passed to
the National Assembly ; the ancient and sacred monarchy of
St. Denis and Rheims, the monarchy of the oriflamme and the
holy ampulla had passed away.^ From this point onwards
the course of events was quickened. Necker's dismissal led to
riots in Paris, where a national guard was formed. The fall of
the Bastille on July 14th, 1789, was the signal for a general
rising throughout the country. The peasants set fire to the
nobles' chateaux and even wrecked some abbeys ; in the
towns the mob took to plundering.
It was under the pressure of these events that there took
place the famous all-night sitting of August 4th. The young
Vicomte de Noailles, who, like his brother-in-law Lafayette,
had fought in America, moved that all feudal rights be
redeemed by the communes, either in money or on a moderate
valuation, and that the corvees, the rights of mortmain, and
other personal obhgations should cease in future without
^ Of the 296 clerical deputies 47 were Bishops, 12 Canons,
6 Vicars General, 23 Abbes or other unattached priests, and 208
parish priests. The last had the great advantage of being
supported by the Archbishops of Bordeaux and Vienne (Cice
and Lefranc de Pompignan) and the Bishops of Chartres (Luber-
sac), Rodez (Seignelay-Colbert), Orange (Du Tillet), and
Coutances (Talaru de Chalmazel). An interesting feature of the
situation is that the wily Talleyrand was still keeping himself in
the background. See Sicard, Clergd, I., 19, 46 seq.
^ GuGLiA, loc. cit., 45 ; Gendry, II., 107.
112 HISTORY OF THE POPES
indemnity. Another /^ra?;^/ seigneur, the Due d'Aiguillon, spoke
in a similar sense, whereupon the assembly was seized with
a veritable frenzy. Everyone wanted to outdo his neighbour
in generosity ; no one wanted " to perish alone ". Even the
clergy was infected by the general excitement. The Bishop of
Nancy, with some of his colleagues, including the Archbishop of
Aix, denounced the feudal system. So many motions were
proposed with such rapidity that the secretaries were hard
put to it to take them down in time. Some of the parish priests
renounced their livings, and a delegate from the clergy of
Lorraine demanded the abohtion of the annates. The Due de
Liancourt proposed that a medal be struck to commemorate
" the self-denial of all the individuals for the good of the
community ", the Archbishop of Paris, De Juigne, that a
Te Deum be sung, the Marquis Lally-Tollendal that the title
" restorer of French freedom " be conferred upon the king.
Day was breaking when the president ordered the reading of
the main titles of the various resolutions, the full drafting to
be left for subsequent sessions.^
But afterwards the assembly refused to listen to any talk
about redeeming the tithes, which were the chief source of
income for the lower clergy. When the eloquent Mirabeau
moved that they be abolished without compensation and
contended that the clergy, being nothing more than " oficiers
de police et d'instruciion ", be paid by the State, there was
a loud murmur of dissent from the clerical benches. Mirabeau
defended his proposal by exclaiming, " I know of only three
ways of existing in society : by begging, thieving, or receiving
wages." At the evening session the Abbe Sieyes, who had
been largely responsible for raising the storm with his attacks
on the nobility and clergy and his glorification of the Third
Estate, failed to move his hearers when he spoke in favour of
redeeming the clerical tithes. When he complained about the
turn the Revolution was taking, Mirabeau rejoined, " My
dear Abbe, you have let the bull loose, and now you complain
1 BoucHEz ET Roux, Hist. parlementaire, II., 224 seq., 229 seqq. ;
De la Gorge, I., 127 ; Sicard, Clerge, I., 183 seq.
ABOLITION OF CLERICAL PRIVILEGES II3
when it runs at you with its horns." ^ Finally the clergy
preferred to give way completely. At the session of August
11th, after several parish priests had renounced their tithes,
the Archbishop of Paris rose to make the statement, " In the
name of all the clergy we surrender all the tithes hitherto
possessed by the Church into the hands of a just and generous
nation. But let the Gospel be preached among us as before,
let public services be celebrated with dignity and propriety,
let the churches be served by virtuous and zealous priests, and
let the poor be assisted as before ! This was the object of our
tithes. But we trust ourselves to the National Assembly and
do not doubt that it will make it possible for us to continue
to fulfil such honourable and sacred duties." ^ Thereupon a
decree was passed, abolishing the tithes unconditionally, and
this was followed by the prohibition of the payment of annates
and other Church dues to the Holy See, which was an open breach
of the concordat.^ All these measures were applauded, for as
a result of its shameful abuse by the Crown the concordat was
detested by many members of the lower clergy as much as
were the money payments to Rome. This being the state of
things, the Bishops held their peace.*
The last remnant of the clerical privileges was abohshed on
August 26th, when, after a long and heated debate, the
^ £. DuMONT, Souvenirs, 147. " Le peuple a appris a connaitre
ses forces," we read in a letter from a parish priest in Normandy,
who vigorously defended the tithes {La Revolution frmiQaise, 1906,
Janvier, 48 seqq.).
* Cardinal Bernis disapproved of the Archbishop of Paris 's
conduct almost as strongly as he did that of Talleyrand later on.
" On n'aurait jamais cru, que I'enthousiasme patriotique put
porter un grand prelat a offrir au nom du clerge la suppression de
la dime, et encore moins qu'un autre eveque proposat de depouiller
rfiglise de tous ses biens ; nous ne sommes que les usufruitiers
des nos benefices." Masson, Bernis, 466, n. i.
^ Ibid., 461 seqq. Sybel (I.*, 70) points out that a previous
violation of the concordat was no justification of the measure.
* Champion, La Separation, 58 ; Ch.-L. Chassin, Les Cahiers
des cures, Paris, 1882 ; Maquiez, 26 seq.
114 HISTORY OF THE POPES
assembly adopted the declaration of the rights of man and
citizen, the tenth article of which declared that " No one is to
be molested on account of his opinions, even when they affect
religion, except when their manifestation disturbs the public,
lawfully estabUshed, order ". On the following day, in the
course of the discussions on the new constitution, the motion
proposed by the Abbe Eymar, that the CathoHc religion be
that of the State, was rejected.
CHAPTER IV.
The Ecclesiastical Legislation of the French National
Assembly in 1789 and 1790 — The Secularization of
Church Property and the Suppression of the
Religious Houses — The Civil Constitution of the
Clergy — The Attitudes adopted by Louis XVL, Pius
VL, AND THE French Hierarchy.
The abrogation of the feudal rights that had been held for
centuries by numerous dioceses, abbeys, and cathedral
chapters, the cancellation of the financial privileges of the
clergy, and finally the abolition of the tithes, without any
compensation, were only the prelude to still more drastic
measures : the secularization of Church property and the
suppression of the religious houses. Here too the preliminary
work of upheaval had been done by the absolutist State. As
far back as 1749 a decree had prohibited the increase of
estates in mortmain,^ and in May, 1766, after the expulsion
of the Jesuits, a royal commission had been appointed whose
ostensible purpose was the removal of existing abuses. It
ordained the suppression of numerous religious houses, and
this was followed by restrictions placed on the reception of
novices. 2 It had been maintained by Louis XIV. that kings
had the absolute right to dispose of ecclesiastical as well as
lay property for the good of the state, ^ and the idea that
Church goods were State property had been gaining ground
since the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1770, acting
on this principle, the errant Abbe Raynal, a friend of the
Encyclopedists, worked out a thorough-going plan for
^ IsAMBERT, Anciennes lois frangaises, XXII., 226.
^ Cf. our account, Vol. XXXVII., 386 seq.
* " Les rois," we read in the Me'nioires de Louis XIV., " sent
seigneurs absolus de tous les biens tant des seculiers que des
ecclesiastiques, pour en user comme sages econonies, c'est a dire
selon les besoins de I'fitat." Cf. Madelin, La Revolution, 118.
115
Il6 HISTORY OF THE POPES
secularization. 1 In the instructions of the electors, the so-
called Cahicrs of 1789, the idea that Church property belonged
to the nation was obviously taken for granted as being a
necessary condition for any demand for reform. The only
point on which opinions differed was whether the administra-
tion of clerical property should be altered or whether the
property should be confiscated altogether.^
These aims, which were furthered by the gross exaggerations
of the value and extent of the Church's possessions,^ were
taken up by the National Assembly. Their exponents, being
fully aware how deeply the Catholic Church was rooted in the
people, in spite of all the subversive activity that had been
going on, decided to approach their objective slowly and
carefully, step by step.
The cant phrase, " The Church's property belongs to the
nation," was first uttered in the National Assembly at the
beginning of August, 1789. In view of the embarrassing
financial situation as described by the Finance Minister
Necker, the hierarchy expressed its readiness to mortgage its
property in order to provide the nation with ready money.
This offer, however, was declined by the Assembly, which
decided instead to raise a loan, being firmly convinced that
it would not have long to wait before the Church's property
was confiscated altogether.* On September 26th, 1789, one of
the noble deputies proposed that the increasing financial
stress be relieved by the sale of church plate. Archbishop
Juigne of Paris, speaking both for himself and for many of
his colleagues, promptly offered to place at the State's disposal
all the plate that was not needed for divine service. The
nature of the applause that greeted this offer showed that
much more was expected.^ The favourable moment for
^ According to Ludwig in the Hist. Zeitschrift, XCVI. (1906),
96, and F. Wolters, Agrarzusidnde, 345.
2 Besides Wolters (382 seqq.), cf. especially Ch. Gomel, Hist.
financiere de I'Assemblde Constituante, Paris, 1896, 138 seq.
3 Cf. above, p. 88.
* De la Gorge, I., 135 seqq. Cf. Sicard, Clergi, I., 192 seqq.
* De la Gorge, I., 139.
TALLEYRAND AND MIRABEAU II7
obtaining it came when the Assembly moved to Paris and was
exposed to the threats of the rough and ignorant mob that
was being stirred up by professional agitators. The situation
grew so oppressive that very soon, by the middle of October,
nearly a hundred deputies had left the assembly.^ This was
a serious mistake, for it left the radical elements in the
majority. Then, more than ever, when the storm was blowing
up, it was their duty to remain at their posts.
The most grievous wounds the Church has had to suffer
have always been inflicted on her by her own unnatural sons,
not by her enemies outside the fold. At the meeting of the
National Assembly on October 10th, when it was still at
Versailles, it was not one of the many unbelieving and anti-
clerical lawyers, but a cleric, and a Bishop at that, who took
the initiative in robbing his own Estate. Talleyrand, who had
entered the Church without having any genuine vocation ^
and who, in spite of his frivolous way of living, had been
presented by the king to the see of Autun in 1788,^ brought
forward a motion whose careful wording most skilfully con-
cealed its true purpose. After referring to the parlous state
of the public finances he proceeded to represent the covering
of the deficit by means of ecclesiastical property as something
inevitable and too obvious for words. The whole of this
property belonged to the nation, but it should see that the
clerics received a stipend and that religious bequests were
duly fulfilled. Prominent among the speakers who developed
this attack was the eloquent Mirabeau. Ostensibly solicitous
for the lower clergy, but really to estrange them from their
superiors, he too, like the Bishop of Autun, pleaded that the
cure should not receive less than 1,200 francs a year. Taking
his cue from Talleyrand, he openly demanded that every
^ Ibid., 140.
2 " Mas parents s'etaient determines, selon ce qu'ils regardaient
comme un interet de famille, a me conduire a un etat pour lequel
je ne montrais aucune disposition." Talleyrand, Memoires
p.p. le Due de Broglie, I., Paris, 1891, 16.
' Blennerh ASSET, Talleyrand (1904) ; De Lacombe, Talleyrand
iveque, Paris, 1903.
Il8 HISTORY OF THE POPES
possession of the Church be declared the property of the
nation. Bamave, an ambitious and embittered Protestant,
only 29 years old, even denied the existence of ecclesiastical
property.^
The Church's rights were defended by Boisgelin, the much-
respected Archbishop of Aix, Camus, the Jansenist advocate
of Paris, and the Abbes Eymar and Maury. Maury maliciously
reminded the assembly that as an abbe in Perigord the Bishop
of Autun had once defended the sacredness of the Church's
right to property against the government of Savoy. Sharp
language was used again by Maury at the session of October
10th, when he denounced the contemplated robbery and
Sieyes' statement that the clergy was not an owner as other
owners were. " There is only one kind of ownership", he
protested, " and it is as sacred to us as it is to you. Our owner-
ship is a guarantee of yours. If we are robbed, your turn will
come too." He stressed the difficulty of putting the proposed
measures into practice and the disappointment that would
be caused by the difference between the estimated and the
actual profit. Great riches had been expected when the
Jesuits were suppressed, but their property had barely sufficed
to provide them with miserable pensions. In passing through
the hands of the State officials the money had run away to
nothing. " You want to be free ! " he cried. " Good ! But
remember that where there is no property there is no
freedom ! " -
The rest of the clergy did not adopt so firm an attitude, and
disclosed their intention of sacrificing some of their goods in
order to save the remainder. The Archbishop of Aix, who had
once been the leader of that section of the clergy that had
wanted to unite with the Third Estate, made every effort to
strike a bargain. With his offer of October 31st to come to the
rescue of the community, as the clergy always had done in an
emergency, in this case by lending the Government 400 million
francs, he deprived the opposition of its chief argument, the
1 De la Gorge, I., 140 seqq.
2 PoujouLAT, Maury, 90 seq. ; Hergenrother, Maury, 23 seqq.
NATIONALIZATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY II9
necessity of meeting the deficit with the Church estates.^ It
looked, indeed, as if the attack had been repelled, when the
advocate Le Chapelier commented that if the clergy continued
as proprietors they would also continue to be a separate
Estate. This new line of thought was again adroitly supported
by Mirabeau, who proposed that Thouret's formula, " The
clergy's property belongs to the nation ", be amended to
" The clergy's property is at the nation's disposal ". Many
of the clergy thought that they might give their approval
to this less peremptory wording, if only because of the simul-
taneous admission of the obligation to provide in a fitting
manner for the cost of religious services, the maintenance of
the Church's functionaries, and the relief of the poor, also to
allot to every parish priest a salary of at least 1,200 francs a
year, besides a house and garden. Accordingly, the motion
was carried on November 2nd, 1789, by 568 votes to 346, and
became law. Forty deputies had abstained from voting ;
300, almost all belonging to the right, were absent. ^ Even
then the real object of the revolutionaries was so cleverly
concealed that there were many who still indulged in idle
hopes. It did, indeed, seem very possible that the threat would
not be carried out. A message to this effect was conveyed by
the Government to its ambassador in Rome, Cardinal Bernis,^
and even Boisgelin thought that the actual committing of the
robbery would meet with serious difficulties, especially in
Flanders, and that probably only monastic property would
be taken.*
But the Revolution was not content with half-measures, nor
did it stop to take breath. The nation having failed to strike
it do^vn when it first raised its head, it steadily pursued its
course of destruction. The most complete embodiment of the
1 " II eut mieux valu accepter, la nation allait faire une
mauvaise affaire." This was Madelin's opinion {France et Rome,
310). Cf. below, p. 129, n. 4.
2 De la Gorge, L, 149 seqq.
' Ibid., 151 seq.
* Cf. his letter to the Countess Gramont, of November 3, 1789,
in Mathiez, Rome et le clerge, 85.
120 HISTORY OF THE POPES
spirit of negation, it devoted all its energy to destroying the
existing order. When it had finally enthroned itself upon the
ruins it ruled the people with the bloody sceptre of brute force
and terror.^
Having gained this first success the leaders of the movement
still continued to conceal their general plan. While gradually
increasing the intensity of the attack they slowly but steadily
advanced. Once the principle had been admitted, the con-
sequences followed automatically. On November 7th, 1789,
the National Assembly placed all ecclesiastical property under
the control of administrative officials and municipahties. Six
days later benefice-holders and all superiors of religious houses
and institutes were ordered to produce within two months
a full account of all the movable and immovable property of
their estabhshments. But it was not till December 19th, when
it was clear to all that the patriotic free-will offerings had
failed to meet the situation, and Necker had described the
financial crisis in the blackest colours to the National Assembly,
that it was resolved to meet the deficit by seUing the royal
domains and church goods to the value of 400 million francs.
Assignats to this amount, bearing interest at 5 per cent, were
to be issued by the Government.^
This attack on the property of the Church was accompanied
by another one, which was far more serious. On August 20th,
1789, in the course of the debate on the so-called " Rights of
Man ", the National Assembly had appointed a Comite
EccUsiastique, consisting of five clerics and ten laymen, to
deliberate on Church affairs. In this committee Bishops Bonal
of Clermont and Mercy of Lu(jon could count on the votes of
six or seven other members, and were thus able to hold in check
the Jansenist Martineau and the Erastians and parhamentary
Galileans, La Perche Treilhard and Durand de Maillane.^
1 MuNZENBERGER, Kirchengesetzgebiing , 5.
2 De la Gorge, I., 153 seq.
' KiEFER, 13. For Martineau 's Jansenism, v. De Bonneval's
letter to Zelada, in Etudes, 1907, Avril, 263, 267. As opposed to
Mathiez, cf. Mourret's remarks on pp. 87, 102.
THE COMITE ECCLESIASTIQUE 121
The situation changed, however, when on February 7th, 1790,
the Paris lawyer Treilhard succeeded in having the membership
of the committee doubled. The Left, now in the majority,^
advocated reforms of so subversive a nature that the Bishops
of Clermont and Lugon, the Abbe Montesquiou, and six
others of similar views refused to take any further part in the
discussions ^ lest their remaining on the committee be repre-
sented by ill-wishers as co-operation in the revolutionaries'
plans.^ Their action is further explained by the fact that three
of the newly -joined clerical members of the committee were
among those who were on the point of openly leaving the
Church, a step they eventually took. On February 11th, 1790,
Treilhard brought forward a motion which had been under
preparation for the previous two months : that a religious
should be allowed to leave his house whenever he wished.
The civil law, he argued, recognized only voluntary decisions.
That he was not concerned with the protection of personal
liberty, however, or the removal of abuses was revealed in the
second part of his proposal. This, in glaring contrast to the
first, prohibited the taking of vows, which was tantamount
to condemning all reUgious houses to a slow death. The
Bishops of Clermont and Nancy fought the motion with
reasoned arguments, but two days later it was passed and
became law. Only educational or charitable institutions were
exempt. The measure had only temporary validity but the
permanent destruction of the religious houses was only a
question of time.^ On February 19th the pension to be paid to
ex-religious was settled. An unexpected result of the debate
was the raising of the ex-Jesuits' pension from the miserable
sum of 400 livres to 900.^
On March 17th, 1790, the National Assembly turned its
attention again to the question of Church property. Treilhard,
1 PisANi, I., 153.
2 DURAND DE MaILLANE, HlSt. Upol., 38.
' KlEFER, 14.
* DelaGorce, I., 155 seqq. ; Sicard, Clerge, I., 284 ; Mourret,
99 seq.
5 SiCARD, I., 285.
122 HISTORY OF THE POPES
who had been elected chairman of the Comite EccUsiastique,
moved that each commune be invited to acquire a portion of
the ecclesiastical estates at a fixed price and afterwards to sell
it to private persons. The communes were to be allowed to
make a profit over the transaction, which was later fixed at a
sixteenth of the purchase price.^ This proposal had a double
object : to make the purchase an attractive proposition for
the communes and to salve the conscience of private pur-
chasers who might fight shy of acquiring Church property at
first hand. On March 17th Treilhard's motion was made law
by decree. Three days later another decree ordered the
religious houses to draw up inventories within a week and to
supply personal particulars. Also, each inmate was to be asked
whether he wished to remain in the establishment or not.^
This action against the religious houses constituted " a serious
invasion of the individual's liberty of conscience ", which in
every other sphere the Revolution wanted to protect. " From
now on it was certain that reconciliation with the Catholic
Church was out of the question and that hostilities were
inevitable." ^
In their boundless optimism many clerics still hoped that the
Assembly would rest content with its resolution to sell the
ecclesiastical property to the amount of 400 millions, and that
later on the clergy would be able to buy it back. All such
hopes were soon to be dispelled. On April 9th Chasset declared
that the decree of November 2nd was useless, so long as the
clergy were not expropriated.* On the same day he moved that
the administration of nearly all the Church estates be trans-
ferred to the district authorities and that uniform payment of
the clergy be regulated in detail by law. To avert this blow the
Bishop of Nancy and the Archbishop of Aix spoke with all the
eloquence at their command, but to no purpose. The latter's
renewal of the clergy's offer to guarantee a loan of 400 millions
^ Decree of May 14, 1790 ; v. De la Gorge, I., 156.
2 Ibid., 157.
' Berger, Der religiose Kult, 25.
* Mathiez, 86.
GERLE S MOTION 123
made no impression. But some harsh words were used about
the Comite EccUsiastique, even by the Church's opponents.
When the direct charge of hostihty to rehgion was brought
against it, it was defended by a deputy from the Auvergne,
a Carthusian of the name of Dom Gerle, who, rehgionist though
he was, had been led by his hazy notions and his enthusiasm
to join the " Club of the Friends of the Constitution ", which
afterwards became the club of the Jacobins. He asserted that
the Comite EccUsiastique was not biased, and that to say that
the National Assembly wanted no religion was a slander. To
reassure those who had misgivings on this score, it should be
decreed that the Roman, Catholic, and Apostolic rehgion was
now and always would be the religion of the nation, and that
only its form of worship would be recognized.
No proposal could have been more welcome to the clergy.
With a prudent moderation it declared its agreement also with
the amendment, that its acceptance was not to prejudice the
rights of the non-Catholics. At first the Left was seriously put
out by this blow that had come from their own camp, but it
quickly recovered and succeeded in having the vote on the
motion postponed until the next session.^
During the night both parties were very active. The Left
put it about that the fanatics wanted to restore the old
intolerance. This induced the poor Dom Gerle to promise to
withdraw his motion. The clergy and many of the nobles met
in the Capuchin convent in the Rue St-Honore, where they
decided to insist on the acceptance of Gerle's motion and in the
event of its rejection to lodge a protest. They also decided
to approach the king in solemn procession and to submit a
protest to him. They would then inform the people of the
danger that threatened religion. A message, however, was
sent to them by the Keeper of the Great Seal that the king was
unable to receive them or accept their address.
On the morning of April 13th hundreds of colporteurs were
1 De la Gorge, I., 157-160. For Dom Gerle, v. F. Mege in the
Mem. de I' Acad, de Clermont-Ferrand , 1865, 444 seqq., and Aulard,
La Societe des Jacobins, I., 59.
124 HISTORY OF THE POPES
distributing leaflets purporting to tell the people about the
plot that had been hatched at the Capuchins. ^ Agitators also
appeared in the National Assembly ; but not only were the
deputies subjected to intimidation ; attempts were also made
to persuade the credulous and the shallow-minded, who were
only too numerous. It was with this object that the Baron
de Menou, who nine years later was to become a Mohammedan
in Egypt, came forward as the spokesman of Catholicism.
" I will begin," he said, " with my confession of faith. I respect
the CathoUc and Apostolic rehgion. I hold it to be the only true
one and I submit to it with my head and my heart. But can
my belief in this religion, my way of worshipping God, be
brought about by the resolution of an assembly, or by a law ?
No, assuredly not. My conscience and my opinion belong to
me alone. I have to answer for them only to the God I worship.
And why should I make this religion, which I respect and for
which I would give my life, the religion of the State ? If all
of us have equal rights, if convictions and all that goes with
them are not subjected to any law, who am I to abrogate to
myself the superior right of forcing my views, my form of
worship, on others ? Could not everyone make this reply to
me : ' My religion is a better one. This is the one that must be
supreme ' ? Did not God Himself say that His rehgion would
grow and grow, until it embraced the whole world, and that
the powers of hell would not overcome it ? And you with
your resolution want to confirm this great pronouncement of
the Lord's ! If you are convinced of the truth of your religion
what fear can you have that it will perish ? Can you believe
that the laws and the will of Providence need the help of your
decree ? " ^
Beguiled by these fine words, Dom Gerle withdrew his
motion, but the Right intended to insist on it, although their
spokesman Cazales was refused leave to speak. At this point
the Due de la Rochefoucauld rose to introduce the following
^ " Assemblee des Aristocrates aux Capucins ; nouveau complot
decouvert." See De la Gorge, I., i6i.
2 Weiss, Weligesch., XV., 78.
Rochefoucauld's motion adopted 125
order of the day : "In view of the fact that the National
Assembly has no power to exercise over consciences and
religious opinions, and that the deep respect due to religion
does not allow of its being a subject of discussion ; further,
seeing that there can be no doubt about the attachment of the
National Assembly to the Roman, Catholic, Apostolic faith at
a moment when it is about to place this form of worship alone
in the first class of recipients of public funds, and when by an
unanimous movement it has given expression to its respect in
the only way conformable with the dignity of religion and the
character of the Assembly, it has decided that it cannot and
may not discuss the proposed motion and that it will resume
discussion on the order of the day, namely the church tithes." ^
While the Left were applauding a cry rang out from the Right :
" When the Jews crucified Jesus they called out, ' Hail, King
of the Jews ! ' " At this, a general uproar ensued and several
members of the Right, including Maury, left the chamber.
Outside they were threatened by the mob. Those that stayed
behind adopted Rochefoucauld's order of the day.^
On April 14th the National Assembly again discussed the
fate of the Church's possessions, and elated by the recent victory
it adopted Chasset's motion. That evening a cleric who was
not far off apostasy wrote to his electors, " The last blow has
been struck against the clergy." ^ And so it was. Gerle's
motion having been rejected, the Right decided to appeal to
the people in the provinces by means of a proclamation.
But it was signed by only 297 deputies, whereas on
November 2nd 346 had voted against the sale of the ecclesias-
tical estates. The strength of the Conservative party in the
National Assembly had rapidly decreased, not one of the
least causes being the attitude of the lower clergy.'*
1 SiCARD, I., 486.
2 De la Gorce, I., 162 seq.
^ " Messieurs, le dernier coup vient d'etre porte au clerge."
LiNDET, Correspondance, 132, in De la Gorce, I., 163.
* SiCARD {Clerge, I., 487) observes : " Ce qui etait grave, c'est
que la majorite des cures avail refuse de s'associer a la protestation.
Sur environ trois cents ecclesiastiques deputes, cent quarante
126 HISTORY OF THE POPES
With the exception of Talleyrand and the titular Bishop
Gobel all the Bishops in the National Assembly had signed the
protest. But with this they rested content. A few of them,
indeed, including Bishop Bausset of Alais, were weak enough
to lull the righteous anger of the people.^ A contemporary
judged correctly that the chief charge to be brought against
the minority was its failure to protest with sufficient vigour.^
This lack of resistance encouraged the Assembly to go still
further ahead. A decree of May 14th contained instructions
regarding the sale of the ecclesiastical estates. In perpetrating
this robbery the Assembly quite forgot that the " rights of
man " that had been so solemnly proclaimed contained the
principle that property was inviolable and sacred. The sale of
the Church's property did not stop short at the 400 miUion
mark ; two further laws, of July and October, 1790, decreed
the sale of all of it. Only a few estates were excepted, those of
the charitable institutions and the forests, which the State
reserved for itself.^
The suppression of the reUgious houses had begun in the
spring with the taking of the inventories and personal par-
ticulars. This was followed by the questioning of the inmates,
as to whether they wished to remain. It was seen then to
what extent the monastic spirit had died away in the male
orders. In some, it is true, especially the poorer and the
stricter ones, such as the Capuchins, the Carthusians, and the
Trappists, there was not a single case of desertion. The grand
spirit of the past was also shown by the Benedictine abbeys of
the North, where most religious houses had escaped the
scourge of the commendatory system. In the country as a
seulement consentaient a I'appuyer. Ainsi les cures qui avaient
provoque la suppression des deux premiers ordres par leur
reunion au tiers, qui avaient abandonne les dimes, defendu ires
mollement les biens du clerge, fait echouer le veto royal, con-
tin uaient a aider la marche de la Revolution, en refusant leur
vote a une proposition tendant a maintenir au catholicisme le
privilege de religion d'etat et de seul cultc public."
1 Mathiez, 182 seq. 2 md.^ 185.
3 De la Gorge, I., 164.
THE BRAVERY OF THE FEMALE RELIGIOUS I27
whole, however, most of the inmates showed no definite
desire either to stay or to leave ; what troubled them all was
the uncertainty of their future.^
The women's convents presented a very different picture.
In this emergency the weaker sex proved to be the stronger.
With very few exceptions these brave women displayed an
admirable resolution. They took no thought for themselves
but only for those entrusted to their care. Their whole desire
was to keep faith with their \'ocation, come what might. One
cannot but be moved by their declarations that they would
rather suffer death than be unfaithful to their vows. They had
taken their vows in absolute freedom, and they asked to be
allowed to die in peace, keeping their rule. From the Carmelite
nuns in Paris the National Assembly had to accept the reproof
that the persons whom Catholic France was intending to
exterminate were suffered to exist in Canada by Protestant
England. When the corporation of Lyons tried to soften the
decree of the National Assembly by a reference to the possi-
bihty of a pension, it received the reply from the Poor Clares
that their vow of poverty forbade them to accept remuneration.
The nuns drew attention to the valuable services they were
rendering with their charitable and educational work, but their
remonstrances had no effect on the civil authorities. Similarly
useless were the efforts made by some of them to save them-
selves by declaring their readiness to work for the community.
The National Assembly insisted on doing away with them all.^
In certain towns and villages the preservation of the
rehgious houses was demanded by the inhabitants, but it was
only in a few places that they were sufficiently determined to
offer any resistance.^ Except in Alsace,* the population showed
^ See the details taken from the Papiers du Coniite ecclesiastique
{Archives nationales in Paris), ibid., 170 seq., and the full account
given by Sicard (I., 287-377).
2 De la Gorge, I., 174 seq., and especially Sicard, I., 412-496.
' De la Gorge, I., 179 seq.
* Graf Solms-Rodelheim, Der Nationalguterverkauf im Distrikt
Strassburg 1791 bis 1811, Strassburg, 1904 (no account of Marion
has been taken in this work).
128 HISTORY OF THE POPES
no particular aversion to the purchase of ecclesiastical property.
Rather the contrary was the case. Owing to the practice of
diverting ecclesiastical revenues from their proper purposes,
the Church's property was no longer regarded as sacred, and the
removal of the occasion for so many abuses was viewed with
satisf action. 1 Besides, the National Assembly had promised
to defray the cost of public worship and to provide for the
clergy and the poor. Any scruples about buying Church
property were allayed by the law of March 17th, according to
which it was not being bought from the Church direct but from
the commune. Most of it was bought by the bourgeoisie.
It is certain that the farmers also took a lively interest in the
sales 2 ; the nobility and even the clergy did not hold them-
selves aloof from the transactions, since everybody else was
taking part and there was no actual prohibition against it.
The cttres, who stood to benefit from the new system of
remuneration, had no cause to lament the passing of the old
regime. The hardest hit were the wealthy members of the
upper clergy ; nevertheless, the episcopate acquiesced in the
new situation with dignity and resignation. From no section
of the clergy was there any resistance, and this passivity
greatly facilitated the proceedings.^ Encouraged by the
1 Such views were expressed as soon as the decree of November 2,
1789, was made known {v. E. Fleury, Le clerge du departement de
I'Aisne pendant la Revolution, I., 1853, 82 seq.).
" Legeay, Documents hist, sur la vente des Mens nationaux dans
le departement de la Sarthe (1885-7), 3 vols. ; F. Rouviere,
L' alienation des Mens nationaux dans le Gard (1900) ;
Lecarpentier, La vente des Mens nationaux dans la Seine-
Inferieure, in the Rev. hist., September-December, 1901 ;
Lemontier, La vente des Mens nationaux dans la Charente-
Inferieure, in the Rev. des quest, hist., Januar}^ 1906 ; Sagnac, in
the Rev. d'hist. mod. et contemp., July, 1906 ; M. Marion, La vente
des Mens nationaux pendant la Revolution avec 6tude speciale des
ventes dans les departements de la Gironde et du Cher, Paris, 1908 ;
A. ViALLAY, La vente des Mens nationaux pendant la Rivolution,
Paris, 1908. Additional monographs in Sicard, Clergi, I., 246 5^^^.
* IMd., 249 seq., 253.
NATIONALIZATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY I29
triumphant reports on the successful progress of the operation
the National Assembly decided to proceed still further with
the robbery, which attached all who participated in it to the
Revolution. 1 All the exceptions that had been made in 1790
were cancelled in rapid succession. In 1792 the religious orders
of knighthood, the Bishops' residences, the property belonging
to the church factories, and the houses of the female orders
were also declared to be national property. In 1793 the same
fate befell the schools, the hospitals, and other charitable
institutions.^ But as the market value of the assignats rapidly
and irresistibly depreciated, the Church properties, which had
been bought at a good price, were sold at such a bad one that
this huge sale proved to be an utter financial failure.^ Nor did
the division of the estates improve the condition of the poor
to the extent that has often been asserted. It has been
established beyond all doubt that in the Paris district, for
example, the only persons to derive any profit from the sale
of the national property were those who were already property
owners. "*
Even before the financial operations had proved unsuc-
cessful the Church, which had already been despoiled, firstly
of all its privileges then of all its property and its Orders, had
1 Ibid., 205 seq.
^Marion, loc. cit., 1^ seqq. ; Sicard, I., 2^^ seq.
3 Marion {loc. cit.), supported by Darmstaedter in the Hist.
Zeitschrift, CIV., 173. Marion estimates the total value of the
goods taken from the Church at 3,000 milHons. For the deleterious
effects and the injustice of the measure, cf. Taine, I., 211 seqq.,
"222 seq., and Mourret, 95; Pisani, I., 138. Sybel (I.*, 113,
127 seqq.) condemns the seizure and sale of the Church goods as
outrageous. In another passage (I., 191) he refers to the measure
not only as a great injustice but also as a financial speculation.
Cf. 222 seqq.
* This is demonstrated with ample evidence extracted from
various archives by B. Minzes in his article Die Nationalgiiter-
Verdusserung wdhrend der franzosischen Revolution, mit besonderer
Beriicksichtigung der Departements Seine und Oise {Staatswissensch.
Studien, ed. L. Elster, IV., 2, Jena, 1892).
VOL. XL. K
130 HISTORY OF THE POPES
sustained another and still more deadly attack at the hands
of the National Assembly. The project of it originated in the
Comite EccUsiastique, in which as far back as November 23rd,
1789, the Galilean Durand de Maillane, the author of a work
on the liberties of the French Church, had recommended,
along with some good, some very dangerous proposals for
reform, such as the eligibility of laymen for the episcopal
ofhce,^ and their nomination without reference to the Pope.
After the radical elements in the committee had gained the
upper hand in February, 1790, a plan to introduce devastating
" reforms " had secured a firm footing there. It aimed at
nothing less than the transformation of the whole ecclesiastical
constitution, and was largely interspersed with Jansenistic
ideas. ^
One of the watchwords of this sect was that the only
possibility of reform was to return to the simplicity of the early
Church. It was a favourite doctrine of the Jansenists that
even simple priests were entitled to participate in the govern-
ment of the Church and in the settlement of questions of faith.
In future, as if in revenge for the restriction of the episcopal
authority, which the Nouvelles Ecclesiastiques, the organ of
the Jansenists, stigmatized as " despotism ", the Bishops of
France were to take possession of their sees without first
obtaining Papal confirmation, as was already the custom in
the schismatic Church of Utrecht. ^
1 Since " the Spirit breatheth where he will ". St. Ambrose was
only a layman, but became Bishop of Milan. Cf. M.\thiez (93),
who nevertheless did not find Durand de Maillane 's proposals (95)
" tres-hardies ".
2 For what follows, cf. the article on the Jansenists during the
French Revolution in the Hist.-pol. Blatter, CXXIV., 124 seqq.,
KiEFER, 15 seq., and our account, Vol. XXXIX., 361. For
Martineau's Jansenism, see above, p. 120, n. 3. For lack of evidence
it is not possible to ascertain what part was played by the Free-
masons in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy or in the French
Revolution as a whole. On this point Dudon [Etudes, April 20,
1907, 263) and Mathiez (81) are in agreement.
8 Cf. our account. Vol. XXXIX., 361 scq.
THE CIVIL CONSTITUTION OF THE CLERGY I3I
Among the members of the Comite Ecclesiastique the Paris
advocate Martineau was swayed by Jansenist and GalHcan
ideas. His colleagues, too, imbued with the principles of the
old Parlements, were amenable to Jansenistic views, .for they
fitted in not only with their whole course of education but also
with the old traditions of their families, in which the memory
of their fathers' battles against the Papal condemnation of
Jansenism was still alive. ^
Now that the Church had been stripped of all its financial
resources provision had to be made for the maintenance of the
clergy. This was an opportunity to reshape the constitution
of the Church under the guise of removing abuses. By means
of the so-called " Civil Constitution of the Clergy " it, too, was
to be made to conform to the completely new conditions.^
1 KiEFER (15) points out that it was the Jansenists who were
principally responsible for the elaboration of the Civil Constitu-
tion, and that it was they, and Camus in particular, who were its
most ardent supporters. Kiefer also very aptly refers to the
marked approval with which the work of the Comite Ecclesiastique
was received in Jansenistic circles, even abroad, citing in evidence
{16 seqq.) the correspondence of Bishop Ricci of Pistoia and
Prato, whose Jansenistic and Gallican leanings were notorious.
The following passage from a letter written to Ricci by Gianni on
January 8, 1791, shows hoAv these circles recognized their own
system in the decrees of the Civil Constitution : " With these new
reforms I should not be surprised if the whole of the Gallican
Church went the way of the Jansenist Church of Utrecht. What
a blow this would be for Babylon ! " (" Babylon ", of course,
was Rome). Kiefer, 17 ; Niccolo Rodolico, Gli amici e i
tempi di Scipione dei Ricci, 140.
2 Kiefer (12 seq.), who rightly rejects the view taken by
SciouT {Histoire de la Constitution civile, I., 31), that the authors
of the Civil Constitution intended with their new law to create a
deistic Church or a purely rationalistic religion. Mathiez goes to
the other extreme in taking at their face value the pious phrases
uttered by the speakers in the National Assembly and in believing
that these " Chretiens sinceres " were really concerned Avith the
welfare of the Catholic Church. Even he, however, admits (78)
that the authors of the Constitution had the intention " de liberer
132 HISTORY OF THE POPES /
This invasion of the purely ecclesiastical domain was to be
undertaken in a completely arbitrary fashion and, above all,
without reference to the Pope, who was to be excluded from
any influence in France. The most that he would be allowed to
do was to sanction the projected upheaval. After their
liberation from the " yoke of Rome " the clergy were to be
so completely subjugated to the civil power as to make
Voltaire's ideal a reality' : that France should be blessed with
a clergy as submissive as that in Russia.^ The Civil Constitu-
tion of the Clergy, the joint work of the Voltairians, the
Jansenists, and the Galilean lawyers in the Parlement, was one
gigantic swindle. Its very name was misleading ; it was not
a civil but an ecclesiastical code, that overturned the Church's
constitution and invaded the domain of dogma.^
Rumours of what was afoot had already reached the public
in March, 1790,^ but the situation was not entirely clear until
April 21st, 1790, when Martineau, representing the Comite
Ecclesiastique, laid before the National Assembly a scheme for
the reordering of ecclesiastical conditions. The greater the
necessity for the Catholic religion, it was stated in the preamble,
the greater the need to ensure its purity. Experience had
shown, it proceeded, that in general, and especially in regard
to the Church, abuses began with divergence from the original
foundation. To remove them, all that was necessary was to
return to the state of things that preceded the divergence.
" Must not the primitive discipHne — the work of the Apostles,
rfiglise de France de la sujetion romaine d'une part, nationaliser
cette £glise de I'autre ". Similarly, Fern. Mourret, Histoire
generate de I'^glise, Paris, 1913, 100.
^ " II n'y a que votre illustre souveraine qui ait raison ; elle
paie las pretres ; elle leur ouvre la bouche at la ferme : ils sent
a ses ordras, at tout ast tranquille " (Voltaira to Schuwalof,
Decembar 3, 1768 ; CEuvres, LX., 580). The whole passage is
given an entirely different meaning in Beuchot's edition {CEuvres,
1833; LXV.. 250).
* PiSANi, I., 160 seq., and especially 165.
' For the counteraction taken by certain Bishops and its
ill-success, cf. De la Gorge, I., 207 seq., and Mathiez, 186 seq.
REORDERING OF ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITIONS I33
the fruit of the instructions they had received from the lips
of their divine master — be most in conformity with the spirit
of the Gospel, the one most favourable for the preservation
and propagation of religion ? " The Comite Ecclesiastique had
accordingly taken as the basis of its proposals " the maxims
of the old discipline ". To recover the simplicity of the early
Church, the State, on its own authority, without consulting
any other body, was to abolish the cathedral chapters, all
other canonries, all abbeys, priories, and benefices. The 130
bishoprics were to be reduced to eighty-three, to correspond
with the number of the newly-created Departements. Of the
archbishops, who in future were to be called metropolitan
bishops, only ten were to survive, and towns with less than
10,000 inhabitants were to have only one cure. It was also
proposed to change all the parishes and fix new boundaries for
them. An immeasurably more radical proposal was the appoint-
ment of the parish priest by the electors of each district, and
of the Bishop by the electors of the Departement. The only
electoral qualification was attendance at a Mass ; whoever
agreed to this could cast his vote, even though he be a Jew or
a declared unbeliever. The cure was to obtain his canonical
institution from his Bishop, the Bishop from his Metropolitan.
The Bishops were expressly forbidden to seek the confirmation
of their appointment from the " Bishop of Rome ", as the
Pope was called for preference ; they might bring their election
to his notice as the visible head of the universal Church
" solely in testimony of the unity of faith " .^ Another general
regulation aimed at the Pope was that no French cleric might
appeal to a foreign Metropolitan or his representative. Every
act of episcopal jurisdiction was to have the assent of a council
consisting of twelve or sixteen vicars. All clerics were classed
as pubhc officials and servants of the State, which fixed their
^ In the text of the law the title " Pope " was substituted for
that of " Bishop of Rome " (" une appellation degagee jusqu'a
rimpertinence " ; De la Gorce, I., 235), and at the request of
the Abbe Gregoire the " unite de foi et communion qui sera
entretenue avec le chef de I'figlise universelle " was repeated
not in one but in two articles.
134 HISTORY OF THE POPES
salaries. The Bishop of Paris was granted an income of
50,000 livres, the other " MetropoUtan Bishops " 20,000 livres ;
the rest of the hierarchy had to be satisfied with 12,000.
Eight classes of salaries were fixed for the curh and other
clerics ; the cures of Paris were in the highest class, with
6,000 livres, the parishes with less than 1,000 souls in the
lowest, with 1,200 livres. To gain the support of the country
clergy, special advantages were promised them. The final item
of the proposal was that the king be asked to take all the
measures necessary to give force to the law.^
The general debate on this motion in the National Assembly
began on May 29th and was continued by a special debate on
June 1st.
At first most of the French Bishops ^ had eagerly partici-
pated in the work of reordering the conditions of the country,
and they had subsequently borne with dignity the loss of their
exalted status and their goods. Now they had no choice but to
resist the outrageous arrogance and arbitrariness of the
1 De la Gorge, I., 209-211. With reference to the interpreta-
tion of the final item, Madelin {Revolution, 181) remarks :
" Voila, dit M. Mathiez, la pensee du Comite ecclesiastique et
cela, parait-il, autorisait une negociation du roi avec Rome. Mais
d'une part I'Assemblee repoussa I'article et d'autre part, la
formule etait pour le moins obscure." In his work France et Rome
(324 seq.) Madelin aptly comments on Mathiez's opinion as follows :
" Camus fit repousser I'article et il est vraiment paradoxal
d'admettre, comme la preuve d'un reel esprit de conciliation, la
motion Gk)bel du 21 Juin qui, pour assurer la paix aux consciences
timorees, indiquait tres vaguement la possibilite de confier au Roi
le soin de faire accepter la loi a Rome ... Si PAssemblee voulait
entrer en pourparlers avec Rome, elle n'avait qu'a le dire. II y a
quelque ironie a dire que la Constituante se montrait conciliante
parce que quelques-uns de ses membrcs n'eussent pcut-etre pas
trouve mauvais que ' I'eveque de Rome ' saisi par le Roi, en vcrtu
de sa ' primaute ', accordat son consentement que d'ailleurs on
tenait pour parfaitement inutile, sans dclai d'ailleurs et sans
reserve, a la loi qui bouleversait sans lui et contre lui toute une
partie de I'figlise romaine."
2 Mathiez (114 seqq.) has listed the exceptions.
BOISGELIN AND TREILHARD I35
National Assembly, which laughed to scorn all their concep-
tions of right and law.^ Their spokesman was Archbishop
Boisgelin of Aix, the chairman of the episcopal committee in
the National Assembly.- He opened the debates with a great
speech delivered with his usual restraint and dignity.^
While agreeing that ecclesiastical conditions were in need
of reform, he would not acknowledge the right of the Assembly
to issue regulations in this connexion on its own account.
The divine founder of the Church had committed the pro-
mulgation of His teaching to the Apostles alone, and they, to
their successors, the Bishops. He had not entrusted it to
officials or to kings, all of whom were subject to the Church.
Bishops could be deposed only by those who had installed
them ; no one had the right to restrict the jurisdictional area
of the Bishops, and in removing the present abuses they must
adhere to the canonical prescriptions. For the Church's
collaboration in the general reform of the constitution the
Archbishop suggested certain ways and means : provincial
synods could decide on separate decrees ; more important
matters must be referred without question to a national council
or to the Pope. The penultimate course was most strongly
recommended by the speaker as he appealed to the king and
the nation to agree to his proposal.*
As expected, the reply to Boisgelin was made by the lawyer
Treilhard. With his description of the abuses in the Church he
sought to prove the necessity of the projected innovations,
which, according to him, the assembly had the right to
introduce. He represented the episcopal authority as universal,
and not restricted to particular dioceses ; the delimitation of
the dioceses was the State's affair and always had been.
Although this argument was not borne out by history, it was
warmly applauded by the majority of the Assembly, as was
also Treilhard's subsequent assertion : " If the demarcation
1 Kiefer's opinion (p. 20).
' Cf. ibid., 23.
* For the Archbishop's character, cf. Lavagnery, Le cardinal
de Boisgelin 1732-1804, Paris, 1921, 2 vols.
* KlEFER, 24 seq.
136 HISTORY OF THE POPES
of the dioceses has nothing to do with faith and morals and is
the business of the State, similarly the election of the Church's
ministers has nothing to do with dogma and is the affair of the
people." Treilhard then reminded the assembly that in 1764
the king had suppressed the Jesuits without the authorization
of the Church. " Is not the nation to have the same right ? "
he demanded.
Camus, the spokesman for the Jansenists, made so bold as
to say : " We are the national assembly and we possess the
full power to change even religion. But we do not wish to do
so. We want to keep the Catholic religion. We want Bishops
and cures. But we want eighty-three Departements and only
one Bishop for each. This is a matter for us laymen to decide."
The efforts made by Camus and his friends by means of pro-
posed amendments to obtain for the clergy the power to
influence the election of the Bishops and cures were soon to be
frustrated by Robespierre and Barnave. Nevertheless, there
were some ambitious clerics who, while protesting their love of
the Church, spoke in favour of the project, hoping that it would
help them to rise to episcopal rank.^ No fresh arguments were
produced by these misguided men, but merely because they
were clerics they exerted a considerable influence on the
Assembly's decisions. The speech made by Robespierre, who
at the time was busily active in the clubs, should have opened
their eyes. This ardent admirer of Rousseau held that the
proposals of the Comite Ecclesiastique were not sufficiently
far-reaching — " philosophic " was the term he used — and he
demanded in addition the abolition of the Archbishops and
Cardinals. But when he began to recommend the abolition of
celibacy the dissent was so vociferous that he was unable to
proceed. At the opening of the special debate on June 1st
Bishop Bonal of Clermont pointed out again the incom-
petence of the Assembly to decide on purely ecclesiastical
questions, and he renewed the demand for the summoning of
^ Among them, besides Gobel, who afterwards became Constitu-
tional Bishop of Paris, were Gouttes, Massieu, Dumouchel, and
Jallet ; of these, only the last-named refused to become a
schismatic Bishop. De la Gorge, I, 225 seq.
BARON ANACHARSIS CLOOTZ I37
a national council. But the majority, misled by Camus's
sophistries, rejected any agreement.^
Acting in accordance with the declaration of the Bishop of
Clermont, the Bishops refused to take any further part in the
dehberations on a law which was so serious an incursion into
the life of the Church. The defence was now left to a few
cures, who tried in vain to blunt the sharpest edges of
the new law.
On June 17th and 18th there were lively debates on the
payment of the clergy. ^ The evening session on the 19th was
remarkable for the appearance of Baron Anacharsis Clootz,
an ardent advocate of the abolition of the monarchy and
Christianity. He came attended by one or two Orientals and
several Frenchmen ; the latter, having procured the appro-
priate costumes from theatrical wardrobes, had attired them-
selves as Swedes, Spaniards, Moroccans, Greeks, Mongols,
and Chinamen. This " Embassy of the Human Race ", as it
called itself, presented to the authors of the rights of man an
address of homage. Its bombastic declamations against the
" tyrants " were received with thunderous applause.^ The
sequel to this prank was the abolition of the hereditary
nobility, as being contrary to reason and true liberty. When
this resolution was announced, amid the frantic plaudits of
the democrats, there were only a few nobles present. The
absence of the Bishops and other clerics from the sessions in
which the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was discussed also
had to be paid for dearly. There was no Catholic party among
the lay members of the National Assembly ; those who
supported the Church were distributed among the various
groups of the Right and Centre. The clergy was split into an
upper and a lower class. There was no great personage
capable of organizing and leading the divided forces in defence
of the Church. The Bishops had formed themselves into a
committee, but here, too, there was a palpable lack of any
' MouRRET, 106 seq.
* De la Gorge, I., 230 seq.
' Le Blanc, Histoire de la rdvolution frangaise , IV., Paris, 1881,
ch. 15 ; Sybel, I.*, 204.
138 HISTORY OF THE POPES
dominant leader, and the want of courage and determination
was disastrous. Neither the Archbishops of Aix and Aries,
Boisgelin and Du Lau, nor Bishop Bonal of Clermont were
capable of dealing with the difficult situation. The Galilean
spirit, with which nearly all the French Bishops were imbued
at this critical juncture, had a crippling effect and, what was
of supreme importance, it precluded a resolute defence of the
rights of the Holy See. Of the 208 cures in the National
Assembly a number were loyal and were excellent speakers,
but their relations with the episcopate were too distant. Even
worse, a considerable proportion of the cures who were dis-
contented with their lot showed that they were not averse to
innovations. In consequence, there was no solid and tenacious
resistance ; the sallies made by individuals were ineffectual.^
A comparison of the June debates with those of April shows
a marked decrease in vigour. None of the many speeches were
worthy of the momentous subject under discussion ; most of
them failed to rise above the level of mediocrity.- The dis-
cussions were repeatedly interrupted by the broaching of
other matters, and the longer they were protracted the less
interest was taken in them. The tedious disquisitions of the
Jansenist Camus, who was consistently at pains to show that
the proposed new law was in harmony with the New Testament
and the earliest Church Councils, thoroughly bored the Left,
but they relieved it of the necessity of launching more vigorous
attacks. Nothing more was required of it than to await
developments.^ The news of the religious conflicts that had
1 De la Gorge (I., 216 seqq., 218 seq.), who observes on p. 249 :
" On put detruire la primaute romaine en affectant de la respecter,
sans qu'aucune voix maitresse repetat Ic mot de Bossuet au
siecle precedent : ' O figlise romaine, que ma langue s 'attache
a mon palais, si jamais je t'oublie.' " Cf. Mathiez, Revolution,
150 ; Zelada's laments, tbid., 199.
- JoLY, Le schisme de I'^glise de France pendant la Revolution,
in the Revue d'hist. et de litt. relig., III. (1898), 165 seqq.
3 Sybel, I.*, 194 ; Rev. d'hist. de I'liglise de France, IV. (1913).
346. The importance of Camus's activity has already been
brought out by Thiers in his Histoire de la Revolution, I., 229.
THE OBJECT OF THE CIVIL CONSTITUTION 139
already broken out in the south, notably in Nimes, were not
taken as a warning, as they were thought to be connected with
disturbances which had been engineered.^ On July 12th,
1790, after the desires of certain cities which refused to
surrender their claims to episcopal sees had been met, the
proposed law was passed in its entirety.^ On the 9th, to no
purpose. Bishop Bonal of Clermont had made an exceptional
appearance in the Assembly to warn it with all possible
earnestness against the imprudent step it was about to take.
He solemnly renewed the civic oath he had taken on
February 4th, " to be faithful to the nation, the law, and the
king, and to uphold the constitution," but he made it clear
that this oath applied only to civil, political, and secular
affairs, not to purely ecclesiastical ones. He omitted these
expressly, " since. Gentlemen, while I remember what I owe
to Caesar, I have not forgotten what I owe to God." ^
The object of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was to
tear the Church in France away from the great unity of
Catholicism, and by overthrowing its constitution so to reduce
it to the status of a Government pohce institution as to
cripple its entire effectiveness. The State erected and
suppressed the dioceses ; it decided who might be elected
Bishop or parish priest, and authorized the communes to
elect these functionaries as though the Church's right to do so
had never existed. It regarded the Church's goods as its own,
administered them as it liked, fixed the clergy's salaries as
though they were its officials, and withheld payment if they
did not submit to the new regulations regarding residence,
which made it impossible for the Bishops to travel to Rome.^
The State had the right to reform religion, according to the
1 Sybel, loc. cit., 192 seq. ; De la Gorge, I., 232 seq., 251 seq.,
Avho gives a full description of the fighting in Nimes.
- Some supplementary decrees were adopted on July 24 (De la
GoRCE, I., 253).
^ SiCARD, £,veques, II., 30S.
* MtJNZENBERGER, 27. Cf. the arguments put forward by
SciouT, Constitution civile (1887), 63 seqq. ; De la Gorge, L,
255 seqq. ; Madelin, Revolution, 150.
140 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Jansenist Camus ; the State, shouted the Voltairian Treilhard,
had the right to allow or prohibit a rehgion.^ The State was
everything, the Church nothing. For the Jansenists, the
parliamentary lawyers, the Galileans, and the Calvinists the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy was an act of revenge on the
Holy See ; for the Voltairians the decathoUcization of France,
which was Mirabeau's final objective, was only a stage on the
way to complete dechristianization.^
1 Madelin {Revolution, 150) reminds us that even Napoleon
did not make such claims as these.
2 KiEFER, 21 ; Madelin, lac. cit., 146. Mathiez objects
(on p. 7) to Sorel's description of the Constitution civile as " une
figlise d'fitat instituee par des incredules " . Sorel certainly goes
too far, but Champion {La Separation de I'^glise et de I'^iat en
1794, Paris, 1903) is equally at fault in endeavouring to persuade
his readers that the great majority of the constituent national
assembly, which passed the law, consisted of " catholiques
sinceres ", who, far from wanting to attack rehgion, wanted to
strengthen it by means of the new organization. Mathiez, who
simply accepted at its face value the fine-sounding assurance of
the authors and promoters of the Civil Constitution, was opposed
by Wahl as soon as the Frenchman published his work in the
Revolution fran^aise. Wahl rightly takes Mathiez to task for not
having really studied the policy of the French Bishops or the
German literature on the subject {Hist. Zeitschrift, IXC, 216)
and, in spite of his prolixity, for not having digested or exhausted
his material {ibid., C, 450). Nevertheless, in the new edition of
his essays which came out in 191 1 Mathiez completely ignored
the valuable work done by Kiefer (1903)- He accepted Champion's
view and defended it very vigorously. But as opposed to this it
should be noted that although there were vague and short-sighted
Catholics of the type of Dom Gerle {cf. above, p. 123), who allowed
themselves to be deluded by the debate on the law, and although
discontented members of the lower clergy voted for it {cf. Kiefer,
21 seqq., and Sicard, I., 421), they were not the authors of the
law nor its real promoters. These consisted of the Jansenists
(whose share in the work is simply denied by Mathiez), the
Parhamentary advocates, the Calvinists, and the philosophers.
The " orthodoxy " of the philosophers had already been
championed by Mathiez in his Contributions a I'histoire de la
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY'S MISJUDGEMENT I41
Since hitherto the National Assembly had had everything
its own way, no punitive measures against offenders had been
included in the new law. The last paragraph in the original
draft — that the king be asked to take such measures as were
necessary for the execution of the law — had been struck out
as being superflous. Clearly the Assembly thought that the
king and the nation would acquiesce in this new decree as they
had done in previous resolutions ; it was quite unconscious of
committing one of its greatest blunders — if not the greatest
and most disastrous — in making a law which was bound to be
regarded by " millions of believing Catholics as an infamous
attack on the sanctuary of their conscience ". It had been
able to destroy the clergy as the First Estate of the feudal
constitution without the opposition's showing anything but
the powerlessness of the conquered. But no sooner did it
set its hand on the clergy as the repository of a faith rooted in
Revolution (Paris, 1910). Though they may not all have been
" adversaires de I'idee religieuse ", their declaration of orthodoxy
cannot be taken seriously. Mathiez himself feels this to be the
case and consequently qualifies his judgment : " Si tous ne sont
pas des croyants praticants, la plupart au moins sont des fideles
respectueux" — as "respectful ", no doubt, as the Baron de Menou,
who afterwards went over to Islam. The rest of them have been
accurately portrayed by De la Gorge : " Quelques-uns
deploraient en secret les usurpations sur le domaine ecclesiastique,
mais par mollesse de croyance ou crainte du ridicule, se garderaient
bien de se compromettre pour des pretres. Plusieurs etaient
tenement penetres des scandales de I'ancien regime que, de
confiance et sans examen, ils suivraient quiconque se proclamerait
reformateur. D'autres enfin affichaient un grand respect pour
Dieu, pour I'fivangile ; quand ils avaient parle de la sorte avec
une piete voisine de I'edification, ils se ravisaient et prenaient
grand soin qu'on separat leur cause de celle des ' fanatiques '.
Qu'on les pressat un peu, et on reculait effraye ; car ces memes
hommes englobaient sous le nom de ' fanatisme ' presque tout ce
que la tradition des peuples avait j usque-la proclame sacre "
(I., 216). PiSANi's arguments (I., 138 seqq.) also run counter to
Mathiez's. There is a very good article on the Constitution in the
Diet, de theol. cath., III., 1537 seqq.
142 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the people than a fratricidal war broke out all over the
kingdom. It was then discovered that as opposed to the
enlight^ed orators of the clubs and the godless mob in the
capital, half the country was occupied by a farming population
that held fast to the church of its fathers with unshakable
tenacity and a readiness to fight for it.^
This attempt to found a schismatic national church not only
drove believers into civil war but also inevitably changed the
attitude of the king, who in spite of all the signs of danger,
hoped, so limited was his intelligence, to be able to rule in
partnership with an assembly ^ which was determined to rule
alone. Two days after the passing of the resolution on the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, at the great festival of the
federation held in the Champ-de-Mars to commemorate the
^ Sybel's opinion [loc. cit., 191 seq., 194 ; cf. also 128, 203, 205),
which is corroborated by respected historians of the most diverse
persuasions : Sorel [L' Europe et la Revolution, II.', 115) ; Hase
{Rosenvorlesungen [1880], 158 seqq.) ; Ranke (III., 145) ; Brosch
(II., 176) ; Debidour [L'Eglise et I'etat de 1789 a 1870, 68) ;
RoBiDou [Hist, dii clerge, I. [1889], 415) ; Eichhorn [Gesch.,
III., 821) ; Mourret (121) ; Kiefer (20) ; Madelin [Revolution,
147) ; id. [France et Rome, 315) ; Bliard (in Etudes, CLXX.
[1922], 21 seq.). In more recent times the Civil Constitution has
found very few defenders. The only German one is Max Lenz,
whose article in the periodical Kosmopolis (1896, 561 seqq.) has
been so thoroughly refuted by Kiefer (17 seqq.) that nothing more
need be said. Independently of Lenz, three Frenchmen have
defended the Constitution. It is not surprising that Gazier, the
last of the Jansenists, should have upheld the work of his sect in
his Etudes sur I'hist. religieuse de la Revolution (1887, 23 seqq.).
Champion [cf. above, p. 140) and Mathiez do so as supporters
of the anti-clerical campaign in France opened in 1903 by the
Left Republican party. Though they do not go so far as Lenz,
their ignorance of the nature and constitution of the Catholic
Church is equally complete.
* In Sybel's opinion (I.*, 240, 245) the changed attitude of the
king, who was finally driven by the persecution of the Church to
enter into a foreign alliance, was the worst injury suffered by the
Revolution as the result of the Civil Constitution.
THE ATTITUDE OF LOUIS XVI. I43
storming of the Bastille, Louis XVI., his hand stretched out
towards the altar in the antique style on which Talleyrand
had offered Mass, took a solemn oath to uphold the new con-
stitution. The cheers with which he was greeted on this
occasion made the weak-willed monarch more than ever dis-
posed to maintain good relations with the National Assembly.^
\\'as he to endanger them by opposing the new law ? On the
other hand, the voice of conscience told him that in sanctioning
such a violation of the most sacred rights as was contained in
the Civil Constitution he was breaking his royal word, by
which he had pledged himself to protect the Catholic rehgion.
Thus troubled in his conscience, the unhappy Louis turned to
the two esteemed prelates who were members of his council.
One of them, the Keeper of the Great Seal, Champion de
Cice, Archbishop of Bordeaux, ^ who had always occupied
himself more with secular than with spiritual matters, thought
it better to come to terms with the National Assembly than
to provoke it with a veto. This opinion was supported by the
other prelate, the worthy Archbishop of Vienne, Le Franc de
Pompignan, who had once been a doughty opponent of
Rousseauism ^ but was now weakened by old age and disease
and was appalled by the prospect of schism.* Thus the plan
was formed to promise to sanction the law but not to publish
the fact until negotiations with the Holy See had been
completed. This escape from the dilemma, which shifted the
whole responsibility on to the Pope, was typical of the pusil-
lanimous king and of his counsellors. They would gladly have
resisted, but dared not. Instead, they deceived themselves
with the hope of extricating themselves from an awkward
situation by inducing the Holy See to give way.^ To
1 De la Gorge (I., 284) has rightly drawn attention to this.
^ Cf. Zelada's praise in his letter to the charge d'affaires Pieracchi
on March 10, 1790 (Nunziat. di Francia, 463, Papal Secret Archives).
* Cl. Bouvier, Le franc de Pompignan, Paris, 1903.
* Cf. Pompignan 's letter to Pius VI., of July 29, 1790, in
Theiner, Documents, I., 283.
5 De la Gorge (I., 286) has written an excellent study of the
course of action chosen by Louis XVI.
144 HISTORY OF THE POPES
a superficial observer such a hope may not have seemed
unjustified.
The events in France had not caused Pius VI. to abandon his
customary benevolence. Like many of his contemporaries he
failed at first to appreciate the full significance of the trend of
affairs, which developed with extraordinary rapidity. As in
his deaUngs with Catherine II., Joseph II., and Leopold of
Tuscany, he decided at first to wait on events, in which attitude
the great confidence he placed in Louis XVI. 's Catholicism
played an important part. Although the prohibition issued by
the National Assembly against the payment of dues to the
Holy See ^ threatened the existence of the concordat, he did
all in his power to avoid a rupture. He ordered prayers to be
said for the intentions of the Church, and on September 13th,
1789, he sent a confidential letter to the king in which, with
fatherly soHcitude but in general terms, he exhorted him to
protect the Church. ^ The king's reply, written in a very
mournful tone, contained assurances of his steadfast devotion
to the Church, 3 but it could not satisfy the Pope, in view of the
bad news that was coming from France. The revolutionary
movement had penetrated even Avignon,* and the National
Assembly was preparing to seize the Church goods there.
^ Cf. above, p. 133.
2 Mathiez, Rome et le clergd, 38 seq. ; here also are particulars
about the settlement of the question of the annates.
3 Text of the letter in Theiner, loc. cit., I., 234, where it is
dated October 8. Gendry (III., in seq.) reproduces it from the
" Carte sciolte " of the Papal Secret Archives, with the date
October i. Masson {Bernis, 465) saw a copy in the Archives des
affaires dirangeres which was dated October 20.
* Cf. Passeri's Memoires sur la Revolution d' Avignon et du
Comtat Venaissin, Rome, 1793, which is valuable for the docu-
ments reproduced from the Papal Secret Archives, and Mathiez
(53 seqq.), who uses the documents in the Archives des affaires
dtrangires in Paris but ignores the information obtained from the
Papal Secret Archives and published by Gendry (II., 166 seqq.)
in 1907. Cf. also J. F. Andr6, Histoire de la Revolution avignon.,
2 vols., Paris, 1844, and Clement Saint-Just, Esquisse hist, de la
THE POPE S RESTRAINT I45
Nevertheless, isolated as he was and unable to rely on any
European power, the Pope found it imperative to hold his
hand yet longer. This decision was supported by the French
ambassador, Cardinal Bernis, who had received an official
intimation from his crafty minister in Paris, De Montmorin,
that the last word in the matter of the Church goods had not
yet been spoken. ^ Moreover, the Pope was in no doubt about
the piety of Louis XVI. and the ecclesiastical zeal of his
Minister, the Archbishop Pompignan.
In these circumstances the greatest possible restraint was
recommended also by the aged Cardinal Zelada, who had been
Secretary of State since October, 1789, and who was genuinely
well-disposed towards France. But at the beginning of March,
1790, news arrived in Rome of the action taken against the
Orders. Surely a protest must be made now ? Many of the
Cardinals were in favour of it, also the first of the emigres,
many of whom had arrived in Rome during the winter. ^
Pius VI. had apparently made up his mind to appeal to France
and the rest of Cathohc Europe by means of a circular letter,
when Cardinal Bernis intervened. In an audience lasting two
hours he threw his rank, his age, and his experience into the
balance. He described at length the excitement that prevailed
in France and argued from this the necessity of avoiding
precipitate measures. " I feel the weight of your arguments,"
replied the Pope in deep distress, " but I must uphold my
honour and obey the voice of my conscience by protesting
against the violation of the Church's laws and the rights of
the Holy See." " In that case," pleaded Bernis, " I beg Your
Holiness to speak only in general terms and to make no special
reference to France. Our enemies want a rupture ; therefore
we must avoid it." The Pope, who had listened to Bernis with
great attention and his customary benevolence, still took no
Revolution d' Avignon et du Comtat Venaissin ei de leur reunion a la
France, Paris, 1890.
1 Cf. p. 146.
* Masson, Bernis, 469 seq. ; De la Gorge, I., 273 seq. ;
Mathiez, 142 seq.
VOL. XL. L
146 HISTORY OF THE POPES
decision. On dismissing Bernis, however, he assured him that
his attitude would be based on his love for the king and his
solicitude for France.^
As the result of Bernis' urgent remonstrances it was
decided not to issue a circular letter. Instead, at a secret con-
sistory on March 29th, 1790, the Pope delivered an allocution
to the Cardinals, denouncing in strong language all the trans-
gressions hitherto committed by the National Assembly. This
speech, however, was kept from the public.^ Similarly, to
Bernis' satisfaction, the permission to dispense from monastic
vows, granted to the French Bishops on March 31st, 1790, at
the request of Cardinal Rochefoucauld, contained only a
message of consolation framed in general terms. ^ Nevertheless,
in spite of these successes, the Cardinal thought that the Pope's
patience ought not to be tried by any more attacks on the
Church. " I too," he wrote, " ought not to be expected to be
more than human in matters affecting one's honour, con-
science, and duty." * His assertion that a public statement,
even if carefully worded and of a general nature, would only
make the situation worse, again succeeded in restraining the
Pope from taking definite action.
Meanwhile the Foreign Minister, the Comte de Montmorin,
a mystic filled with hatred of the Holy See, and probabty a
freemason,^ who had compared the Pope to the Sultan,
wrapped himself in studied silence so far as Bernis and the
nuncio Dugnani were concerned.^ Nevertheless, news of a
highly disquieting nature made its way to Rome. In April the
nuncio reported that a poisonous pamphlet against the Pope
^ Cardinal Bernis' report to M. de Montmorin, dated Rome,
March 16, 1790, in the Archives des affaires etrangeres in Paris,
used by Masson {loc. cit., 477) and De la Gorge (I., 275).
«Text of the allocution in Theiner, loc. cit., I., 1-4. Cf.
GuiLLEAUME, I., I seqq. ; Masson, 478.
' Text in Theiner, I., 4 seq., and Guilleaume, I., 7 seqq.
* De la Gorge, I., 277.
5 Mathiez, 14 seq., 19, 133.
* De la Gorge, I., 277 seqq.
THE ANXIETY OF PIUS VI. I47
had been allowed to circulate.^ Far more disturbing were the
messages he sent about the regulations contained in the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy, which, in the opinion of one who
saw things as they were, evinced an unbelievable hostility
towards the Holy See.^
Moved by ever greater anxiety, Pius VI. ordered public
prayers to be said in Rome at Whitsun for the protection of
the Church. When the French Government expressed its
misgivings about the extension of these prayers to France the
Pope could not refrain from remarking to Bernis : " God
grant that His Most Christian Majesty is threatened by no
worse danger than our prayers ! " To avoid giving the enemies
of the Holy See in the National Assembly any cause for
complaint no reference to France was made in the announce-
ment of the prayers, and they were confined to the city of
Rome.^ But the restraint shown by the Holy See only seemed
to make its enemies bolder. With extreme ruthlessness they
continued in their discussions on the Civil Constitution of the
Clergy to treat the Church as a civil institution which was
simply subject to the ordering of the State and had only as
much right as was vouchsafed to it by the National Assembly.
By June there could be hardly any doubt that the new law
would go through.
Cardinal Bernis learnt of all this only through the news-
papers. Although these reports, he wrote to Paris in slight
reproval of the Government, offered no guarantee of their
authenticity, he would be guilty of a serious neglect of duty if
he failed to point out the evil consequences of deciding such
controversial and momentous matters in a precipitate and
arbitrary fashion. An attempt was being made to bring about
a complete revolution in the discipline and constitution of the
Catholic Church, which had been laid down by the canons and
1 Report of April 19, 1790 {v. Gendry, II., 117). For the
pamphlet, entitled " La Journee du Vatican ou le Mariage du
Pape ", V. Masson, 479, n. i. This trashy composition was
performed at the Theatre Louvois in September, 1793.
2 Report of JNIay 10, 1790 (Gendry, II., 121).
^ De la Gorge, I., 279 ; Mathiez, 238.
148 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the councils. The suppression of the present bishoprics and the
erection of new ones, the election and canonical institution of
the Bishops, were essentially ecclesiastical matters. In issuing
regulations concerning them the National Assembly was
exceeding its competence. But as it was not a sovereign body,
its law was a dead letter so long as it was not sanctioned by
the king. So all was not yet lost. Perhaps in the course of time
an agreement could be reached, though it was certainly
difficult to negotiate between two parties of which one refused
to give way in any direction and the other was unable to waive
rules and regulations that had been laid down dogmatically.
However, as it was still in the king's power to prevent the
threatened schism he must make use of his right. To sanction
ordinances w^hich were inherently schismatic would be a burden
on His Most Christian Majesty's conscience.^
Shortly after this warning of the French ambassador and
Cardinal had been received in Paris three Briefs arrived there :
one for the king, the other two for his counsellors, the Arch-
bishops of Vienne and Bordeaux. All three missives were
dated July 10th, 1790. In the Brief to the king the Pope openly
expressed his solicitude about the course of events in France
and touched finally on the insurrection of Avignon and the
offer made by the revolutionaries there to attach themselves
to France. But the main purport of the letter wasecclesiastical.
Pius VL made it clear that he was in no doubt about the king's
devotion to the Roman Catholic Church, but as the Vicar of
Christ and the guardian of the treasure of the faith he was
obliged not so much to enlighten him on his duties to God and
his peoples — for he held him incapable of acting against his
conscience and of surrendering himself to the delusions of a
false policy — as to declare to him with firmness and fatherly
love that he would lead his whole nation into error and plunge
his kingdom into schism, and possibly into a terrible war of
religion, were he to confirm the National Assembly's decisions
about the clergy. Hitherto he, the Pope, had scrupulously
^ This important letter from Bernis to Montmorin, of June 30,
1790, was first published by Masson {loc. cit., 479)-
LOUIS XVI. SANCTIONS THE CIVIL CONSTITUTION I49
avoided every kind of conflict by using only the innocent
weapons of prayer, but if the danger to rehgion continued
he would have to raise his voice as head of the Church without,
however, ignoring the precepts of charity. His Majesty was
not to believe that a political body could alter the teaching
and general organization of the Church and order the election
of Bishops and the suppression of episcopal sees — in other
words, shatter and mutilate the whole structure of the
Catholic Church, precisely as it pleased. The king could
renounce the rights of his crown, but he certainly could not
dispose of what belonged to the Church, of which he was the
eldest son. In any case, before deciding on so weighty a
matter Louis should consult the two Archbishops on his
council and the rest of the episcopate.^ It was, of course, at
their suggestion that the plan had been formed to sanction
the Civil Constitution but not to publish the fact until the
negotiations with Rome had been completed. But this Papal
Brief put an end to any hope of success by this method.
Moreover, the two Archbishops were sternly admonished in
the Briefs of July 10th to restrain the king from sanctioning
the Civil Constitution, since this would mean his participation
in a schism.^
By the time these Briefs arrived in Paris the decision had
been taken. On July 22nd Louis XVI., accepting the opinion
of all his counsellors tendered to him on the 20th, informed the
National Assembly that he would sanction the Civil Constitu-
tion, but that he was withholding the publication of this
decision in order to take the necessary measures for the
execution of the new law.^ What he had in mind was the
negotiations with Rome. But after the arrival of the Briefs
of July 10th this way of escape seemed to be blocked. Never-
theless, the king, Cice, and Pompignan went on hoping that
they would be rescued from their predicament, or at least that
^ Theiner, I., 5-7 ; GuiLLEAUME, I., lo seqq.
^ Theiner, I., 7-10 ; Guilleaume, I., 14 seqq., 18 seqq.
* Mathiez (265 seq.), to whom is due the credit of having been
the first to give a clear account of these events.
150 HISTORY OF THE POPES
they would gain time by the Pope's provisional acceptance of
the Civil Constitution or a large part of it, for after all, as the
result of the revolution of Avignon, the Pope was dependent on
the good graces of the French Government. In this opinion
they were supported by Boisgelin and Bonal, who were also in
favour of this expedient.^ Bonal assured the nuncio Dugnani
that this was the view not only of the Bishops in the National
Assembly but also of their other colleagues. The nuncio
thought this not improbable ; he knew how widely Gallican
ideas were spread among the French Bishops and he feared that
if an understanding with Rome was not reached quickly a
third of the French episcopate would conform to the regulations
of the Civil Constitution.^
If Paris really did desire an understanding with the Holy
See the worst possible method was chosen to arrive at this
result. The fundamental error in the Civil Constitution was
the completely arbitrary procedure of the National Assembly
in interfering with what were pre-eminently ecclesiastical
affairs. Adherence to this principle inevitably rendered
negotiations for an agreement extremely difficult. The ill-
advised king, writing from Saint-Cloud on July 28th, in reply
to the Brief of the 10th, announced quite bluntly that in
accordance with the public statement he had made to the
National Assembly on the 22nd he would take steps to carry
out the Civil Constitution. He was ready to receive the
Pope's comments on this law with due respect, but he asked
him to consider the condition of the French Church, since the
chief object of religion now was the avoidance of a schism.^
The king thus placed the head of the Church in the dilemma
of either bending beneath the Caudine Forks of the National
1 Ibid., 259 seq.
- Dugnani 's report of July 14, 1790 (French translation in
Mathiez, 261).
* Theiner, I., 264 seq. No mention was made by Louis XVI.
of the revolution in Avignon, to which reference had been made
in the Brief of July 10. Moreover, a special memorandum on the
subject, with a direct appeal to the king, had been handed in on
July 20 (in Passeri, II., App.).
CARDINAL BERNIS' INSTRUCTION 151
Assembly or of provoking a schism.^ To make this
unreasonable request acceptable to the Pope, Cardinal Bernis
was instructed on August 1st to point out that the danger of
the situation demanded a rapid decision. Unlike the National
Assembly, the king had not wanted to ignore the Pope or even
to call a national council. In his piety and fihal devotion he was
appealing directly to the Holy Father. He did not conceal
from himself the difficulties that stood in the way of the
fulfilment of his wishes, consequently he did not request a
final but only a provisional sanction of the most important
regulations contained in the Civil Constitution, namely the
new diocesan divisions, the suppression of the chapters, and
the election of the Bishops by the people.
The instruction not only prescribed the substance of the
reply that was to be made by the Pope but also demanded
that it be made immediately, not to the Bishops but direct to
the king. Finally the Cardinal was reminded of the necessity
of a quick decision, which was all the more remarkable as the
king had not hurried himself with his reply.^
The courier who left on August 1st with the instruction and
the king's letter had been told to travel with all haste and to
return without delay.^ This haste, which left the Pope hardly
any time in which to consider so important a matter, was as
unreasonable as the demands that were put to him. Cardinal
Bernis, as ambassador, was saddled with the unpleasant task
of representing a policy which demanded the impossible.^
He accordingly drafted another memorandum, which put the
requests of his Government in a different light and made it
possible, as he hoped, for the Pope to agree to them. The
Cardinal knew only too well that if he presented himself to the
Pope with the direct request for the recognition of the Civil
1 Masson, Bernis, 482.
* Bernis' instruction was first published by Masson {26^ seq.).
' De la Gorce, L, 291 seq.
* The policy of the French Government, says De la Gorge
(I., 288), " pretendait bouleverser I'figlise avec le consentement de
rfiglise elle-meme."
152 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Constitution he would only receive a complete refusal. Instead,
therefore, of making so hopeless an attempt, which could only
embitter the Pope, he shifted the basis of the negotiations by
proposing a revision of the law, so as to make it acceptable.^
His Hohness might agree to this, but whether the National
Assembly would be willing to revise its law was quite another
question. On August 13th the Cardinal had a long audience
with Pius VI. Taking care not to present his Government's
demands in the crude form in which they had been transmitted
to him he spoke about a provisional arrangement and described
the risks involved in delaying a decision. The Pope, who had
known two days earlier that the king had decided to give his
sanction, did not conceal his surprise and pain at this
behaviour. " The sanction," he said, " deprives me of many
expedients I might have used," but he refrained from using
any harsh words about the unhappy monarch. At the same
time he firmly refused to take any precipitate decision.
Though he had little hope of coming to any agreement he
expressed his willingness to call a Congregation of Cardinals
without delay to consider the French demands.^
With this reply the courier set out on his return journey on
August 18th. He took with him also a letter from the Pope to
the king, informing him that a Congregation of Cardinals was
being set up to consider Bernis' proposals and emphasizing
once again quite definitely that a purely political assembly had
no right to make laws on ecclesiastical matters.^
The authors of the Civil Constitution were burning with
1 Bernis' memorandum in Theiner, I., 265-281, excellently
summarized in Kiefhr, 34 seq. Cf. also Mathiez, 283 seqq.
Mathiez unjustly condemns Bernis' action and, in opposition to
Masson, does his best to depreciate the Cardinal's worth on many
other scores, though he admits that a final verdict is impossible so
long as the Cardinal's private correspondence is withheld from the
public.
2 Bernis' report to Montmorin, of August 18, 1790 {loc. at.),
used by De la Gorge, I., 293 seq.
'Text of the letter, written in French and dated August 17,
1790, in Theiner, I., 15 seq.
THE JANSENIST CAMUS 153
impatience to bring their work to completion, and regarded
with annoyance the king's appeal to Rome. The real object of
their law was to exclude the Supreme Pontiff from any
influence in France. In the course of the discussions the
Jansenist Camus had directly denied the Papal supremacy.
" What is the Pope ? " he had asked. " A Bishop, a servant of
Christ like the others, whose powers are confined to the
diocese of Rome. The time has come for the French Church,
which has always jealously guarded its freedom, to be freed
from this slavery." Lanjuinais and others also spoke of
Pius VI. merely as Bishop of Rome.^ With what anxiety then
the authors of the Civil Constitution must have listened for
news about the king's negotiations with the Pope ! All who
had hoped that the Pope would be induced to give his pro-
visional approval of the law now at last began to grow
impatient. On August 16th the deputy Bouche demanded the
publication of the sanction, and on the following day the same
demand was made by the Comite Ecdesiastique. The feeble
Cice asked for another week's grace. On the 20th Bouche
declared in the National Assembly that this was too long.
The nuncio, reporting on August 23rd on the agitation that
was being worked up against the Holy See, wrote that a
rumour was being spread that the Pope was urging the cabinets
of Europe to send troops against France. ^ On the 24th, the
feast of St. Louis, the period of grace expired. In offering his
congratulations to the king on his name-day, Dupont, the
president of the National Assembly, recalled the sainted king
Louis, representing him as a Galilean and a steadfast opponent
of the Roman Curia. Louis XVI. saw the point of the allusion
and abandoned all resistance. Pompignan lay on a sick-bed
from which he was not to rise again and took no part in the
last act. Cice, however, as Keeper of the Great Seal, had no
scruples in setting his hand and his seal to the decree by which
Louis XVI. gave his definite approval to the Civil Constitution
of the Clergy. The king had not waited for the Pope's reply,
^Madelin, Rdvohition, 147, 151.
* Dugnani's report of August 23, 1790 {loc. cit.).
154 HISTORY OF THE POPES
which could not have arrived in Paris before August 26th. ^
One can understand how it took Louis twelve days to reply to
the Pope's letter when it did come, and his embarrassment can
be seen in his reply. He made no attempt to justify himself.
Pleading the force of circumstances, he confined himself to
notifying the Pope that he had published the Civil Constitution
but that he had not yet brought it to the knowledge of the
interested parties in due form.^
It is characteristic of Pius VI. 's gentleness and forbearance
that in his reply of September 22nd, while deeply regretting
the step taken by the king, he administered only the lightest
of reproofs. He seems almost to be excusing himself in saying
that evidently it was still not clear to His Majesty that the
reformers were using his royal name to shield themselves
while attaining their rash projects of revolution. The Pope
would withhold the explicit and definitive condemnation of
the Civil Constitution until the Congregation of Cardinals
had met on September 24th and had once more given the
matter their careful attention. The Pope then made the highly
important announcement that he would exhort the French
Bishops to turn in confidence to Rome for help. The king was
asked to support this appeal, for this was the only way of
finding ways and means of restoring ecclesiastical order ; the
imparting of provisional powers would cause the most grievous
harm.^
These last words were a reference to the expedient suggested
on behalf of the suffragan Bishops of his province by the
Archbishop of Auch, De la Tour-du-Pin, on August 7th, that the
Pope should provisionally agree to the Civil Constitution by
dint of Papal dispensations and concessions or with certain
alterations.^
1 Masson, Bernis, 486 ; Sicard, Clerge, II., 399 seqq. ; Mathiez,
302, 306 seq. The journey from Rome to Paris still took 12-14 days.
2 Louis XVI. 's letter of September 6, 1790 {Arch, des affaires
itrang.), used by Masson (485) and De la Gorce (I., 297), and
reproduced by Mathiez (314 seq.).
'Theiner, I., 18 seqq.
* Ibid., 284-296. Cf SciouT, I., 280 ; Kiefer, 43 seq.
THE pope's opinion CONFIRMED BY CARDINALS 155
The Cardinals appointed to the Congregation took the same
viewpoint as the Pope.^ They assembled on September 24th
and one can easily understand how their deliberations lasted
till October 27th. Their decision was bound to be fraught with
the gravest consequences. Now that the king had deiinitely
sanctioned the Civil Constitution, only two courses seemed to
be open to them : either to accept the law in its entirety or
wholly to reject it. The former course, quite apart from the
danger of other States introducing similar laws,^ was impossible
to reconcile with the Catholic religion. On the other hand, the
total condemnation of the law was equally repugnant to them,
in view of the incalculable consequences that would ensue.
The Pope, too, was still reluctant to use extreme measures.
Though provoked by abusive writings that were being dis-
seminated in Paris,^ he maintained complete composure and a
conciliatory spirit. He was ready for any sacrifice that did
not conflict with the unity and constitution of the Church.
When he received Cardinal Bernis in audience on October 22nd
he had on his desk in front of him the opinions of the Cardinals
and several letters from the French Bishops, including one
from Boisgelin, whose talent and prudence he highly esteemed.
The Cardinals of the Congregation, said the Holy Father
several times, were of the unanimous opinion that the Civil
Constitution, in its present form, could not be approved
without deahng the Church a mortal blow.* Emphasis was
1 Mathiez (324, n. i) gives the names of the members of the
Congregation as reported by Bernis on September 22, 1790,
2 SoREL, L'Europe et la Revol. franQ., II. (1899), 124 seq.
3 Masson, 479.
* " Ceux-ci sent unanimes a juger qu'on ne pent, sans porter
im coup mortel au catholicisme, approuver tels qu'ils sent las
decrets sur le clerge." In his book Rome et le clerge frangais, which
abounds in insinuations and suppositions, Mathiez (Professeur
au lycee Voltaire, President de la societe des etudes robespierristes)
is at pains to show that it was not the National Assembly, with
the Civil Constitution, that made the fatal mistake that brought
so much suffering on France, but Pius VI., through not accepting
this law, and that the chief motive for his attitude was his anxiety
156 HISTORY OF THE POPES
laid on the words, " in its present form," which were further
explained by the statement : " It is easier to destroy than to
restore, but for the latter We must be given time." Pius VI.
couched his decision, which accorded with the Cardinals'
opinion, in the following form : "It must be explained to the
king in writing that many of the regulations of the Civil
Constitution are of such a nature that We cannot approve of
them without contravening Our most sacred duties. At the
same time, however, We shall instruct the French Bishops to
make Us proposals as to how the most objectionable directions
of the new law may be brought into harmony with the
principles of the Catholic and Galilean Church." ^
Pius VI., who had not been sufficiently informed either by
Bernis or the nuncio Dugnani of the importance of the ev^ents
in France,^ wanted even at this stage to avoid a rupture and
about the revolution in Avignon (Mathiez, 62, 300). Mourret
(112) has very rightly protested against this imputation of a
" calcul d'une egoiste at basse politique ". In the Annales
revolutionnaires of July-August, 1921, Mathiez proceeded to
advance the view that with a little good -will Pius VI. could have
accepted the Civil Constitution. But, as Bliard has sho\\Ti in
Etudes (1922 ; CLXX, 13-28), this theory rests on a complete
ignorance of the principles of the Catholic Church. Mathiez again
betrays an entirely wTong conception of the facts and of Pius VI. 's
standpoint when he asserts, with an allusion to Joseph II, " Ce qui
etait permis ou tolerable chez un souverain legitime, devenait un
attentat sans excuse chez des sujets revoltes " {Rome, 79). In the
same breath he observes quite rightly that the basic object of
the Civil Constitution was " liberer I'figlise de France de la
sujetion romaine d'une part, nationaliser cette figlise de I'autre "
(p. 78 ; cf. above, p. 131, n. 2). It is almost ludicrous when, in
the further course of his arguments, the apologist of Robespierre
delivers to the Pope a solemn lecture on his pastoral duty (245,
298), which consisted simply in sanctioning such a law.
1 Cardinal Bernis' report to Montmorin, of October 27, 1790
{loc. cit.), used by Masson (486) and evidently also by De la
GoRCE (I., 300).
* As for Bernis, who was purposely kept in ignorance by his
Government of what was happening (see above, p. 146), Mourret
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OMNICOMPETENT 157
to come to an understanding, but the National Assembly,
which considered itself to be the competent authority in all
matters, ecclesiastical included, made this impossible by
undertaking the execution of the law without reference to the
Pope or the French episcopate.
The possibihty of its meeting with energetic resistance
seems at first hardly to have entered into the Assembly's
calculations. It thought that there was nothing to fear from
the peasants and the inhabitants of the smaller towns and not
■much from the bourgeois. Many of the educated had been
infected with the spirit of the age and despised or hated the
clergy. The full significance of the reforms, which left the
religious services untouched, was reaUzed at first by very few.^
Of those who were favourably inclined towards the Church,
including even the clergy, the majority had participated in the
work of reform with such enthusiasm as to leave no room for
restrictions or precautions. The lower clergy had given the
(115) says quite rightly that his diplomatic position did not allow
him to tell the Pope everything. As for the supply of information
by the nunciature, Pisani says (I., 167 seq.) that in the dispatches
to the Secretary of State the facts were accurately reported, but
that there was no appreciation of the forces at work. Dugnani's
competence is also unfavourably judged by Gendry (II., 119, 122),
who says in the latter passage : " Les eveques, alarmes, a juste
titre, de la situation presente se retournent vers le nonce, mais
Dugnani n'ose assumer les graves responsabilites qu'on reclame
de lui. Ce prelat est-il bien a la hauteur de sa lourde charge ? . . .
Toute sa politique semble consister a donner des informations a
la secretairerie d'fitat et a en attendre les ordres. Dans aucune
circonstance urgente, il n'osera ni prendre une decision, ni meme
I'insinuer a sa cour." Mathiez thinks this judgment too severe
(123), but he admits that the nuncio took too optimistic a view of
the situation (197). Masson says (432) that in the matter of the
Civil Constitution the nuncio went as far as he possibly could to
keep the peace. A conclusive judgment on Dugnani's performance
of his duty can only be formed after the publication of the work
which has been prepared by the Abbe Sevestre for the Societd
d'histoire contemporaine.
^ SiCARD, £,viques, II., 349 seq.
158 HISTORY OF THE POPES
reform so warm a welcome that any opposition on their part
was most improbable. Many of them had been actuated by
material distress, and now at last they were assured of a
decent existence. Any lasting resistance in this quarter,
therefore, was almost out of the question, though there
were individuals who were already beginning to see the
truth.i
Thus, all the hopes of the Church were centred on the
Bishops. In Paris it was thought that since they had acquiesced
in the loss of their privileges and their goods and had not put-
up an effective opposition when the matter was deliberated in
the National Assembly, they would adapt themselves to the
new order once it had become law. Expectations of this kind
were not unjustified, since the Bishops' attitude towards the
Civil Constitution had been neither uniform nor forceful.
They had objected at the very beginning, but when their
protest died away they had withdrawn themselves from the
debates and had failed to make a determined stand. After the
law had been accepted by the National Assembly and had been
sanctioned by the king, many of them, including those who
were most respected, indulged too long in vain hopes of its
provisional approval by the Pope. Only a few of them made
an immediate protest ^ or issued sharply-worded pastorals
against the Civil Constitution ; among the latter were the
Archbishops of Vienne and Amiens.^
The Pope's long delay in reaching a decision was due not
only to the fact that it was still possible to revise the law. If
^ " lis commencent a s'appercevoir qu'ils ont ete dupes,"
\\Tote the Archbishop of Embrun to Bernis on October 30, 1790
(Theiner, I., 297 seq.).
2 The Bishop of Laon, however, had protested against the Civil
Constitution in a letter to the Pope of June 18, 1790 ; and the
Bishop of Quimper did likewise on July 18 (Tresvaux du
Fraval, Histoire de la persecution revol. en Bretagne, Saint-
Brieuc, 1892, L, 97 seqq.). Cf. Dugnani's report of August 23,
1790 {loc. cit.).
* For these pastoral letters, which were issued at the end of
August, V. Mathiez, 318.
ENFORCEMENT OF THE CIVIL CONSTITUTION 159
this hope failed and a condemnation became imperative, there
was still another factor to be weighed : he was not by
any means certain that the majority of the French Bishops
would support him. The steady demand for a national council
filled him with misgivings about the Galilean tendencies of the
episcopate.
By rejecting this demand for a national council the National
Assembly had played into the Pope's hands to some extent,
for now there was no other authority to give a decision.^
Basing its calculations on the accommodating attitude of so
many of the Bishops, the Assembly was counting on the Pope's
provisional approval of the law, and hoped that its attitude
towards the revolution in Avignon would exert a decisive
pressure on Rome.^ But by the middle of September, when
the Pope was still withholding his decision, the Government
grew tired of waiting and ordered the law to be put into effect.
Now, however, it encountered an opposition that was far more
extensive than it had expected. In any case, the method of
procedure it adopted was enough to provoke the most
peaceable persons to resistance. The Departement authorities
were baldly instructed to call on the Bishops to accept a law
that did away with all their rights. The chapters received
notice that they had ceased to exist. By the end of September
this had been done in Nantes and Nimes, and by the beginning
of October in Lyons, Bourges, and Digne.^ The chapters now
followed the example of the Bishops in offering resistance ;
in many cases they yielded only to force. In many places,
such as Mirepoix, Verdun, Soissons, and La Rochelle, their
protests were quickly supported by the Bishops.^
The arrogance of the Assembly in proposing on its own
authority to deprive time-honoured sees of their importance or
to suppress them altogether, aroused bitter opposition on
several occasions. The Bishop of Senez had already declared
1 Even Mathiez (240) admits this.
2 Ibid., 226 seq., 231 seq., 234, 299 seq., 317.
3 De la Gorce, I., 301.
* See the instances quoted by Mathiez (327 seq., 329 seq.).
l60 HISTORY OF THE POPES
on August 13th, 1790, that he did not propose to resign his
lawful see.i On September 2nd, 1790, Archbishop Dillon of
Narbonne wrote a firm letter to the king, complaining that an
attempt was being made to reduce him to the rank of a
suffragan. It was intended, he observed, to introduce into
France Presbyterianism, the sect most hostile to the monarchy.^
Under the terms of the Civil Constitution the diocese of
St-Pol de Leon was suppressed ; on receiving notice of this,
addressed to himself as the " former " Bishop, the incumbent
sent it back as " undehverable ".^ Although he was himself
a member of the National Assembly, the Bishop of Beauvais,
exercising his old right, filled a parochial vacancy in spite of
the fact that the order had gone forth to give effect to the
Civil Constitution.* Had not death prevented him the
universally respected Bishop of Quimper would have put his
name to a solemn protest. ^ In a pastoral letter to the diocese of
Grasse the severance of communication with the Pope was
condemned as schismatic.^ The Bishops of Strasbourg and
Verdun claimed their privileges as Princes of the German
Empire.' The occupants of the sees of Lisieux and Nantes
declared that they could take no part in the execution of the
new law until the Pope had spoken.^ The clergy of Soissons
were forbidden by their aged leader to participate, whether
directly or indirectly, in the execution of the Civil Constitution,
The Bishop also appealed to his colleagues, forty-five of whom
expressed their agreement.*' But there were also those who in
their weak-willed complaisance assisted in the execution of
the measures stipulated by the Civil Constitution. Among
1 Barruel, Collection eccles\ast., I., 396 seq.
^ Theiner, I., 296 seq.
^Barruel, loc. cii., I., 412 seq.
* Kiefer, 53 seqq.
* De la Gorge, I., 304 seq.
* Mathiez, 335.
' Ibid., 334.
8 Ibid., 330, 337 seq. ; Kiefer, 54.
* Fleury, Le clergd de I'Aisne pendant la Revolution, Paris,
1853, 145 seq.
THE BISHOPS IN THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY l6l
them were the Bishops of Tarbes, Vannes, and Perpignan.^
Uniformity in the attitude of the hierarchy was first brought
about by the statement issued on October 30th by the Bishops
in the National Assembly, who, as the highest ecclesiastical
representatives of the nation, were best qualified to take this
step. This document, entitled Exposition des Principes sur la
Constitution Civile du Clerge,^ was drawn up by Boisgelin and
was signed by aU the Bishops in the National Assembly except
Talleyrand and Gobel. It began with the statement that the
National Assembly had issued the decrees on the Civil Con-
stitution in the form of absolute laws of a sovereign power
which considered itself to be completely independent of the
authority of the Church, and consequently found it unnecessary
to observe the canonical forms. In the face of this it was their
duty to declare that any such procedure was contrary to all
the principles of the Catholic Church. The regulations laid
down in the new law were then subjected in turn to a searching
but entirely unemotional examination, not by any means all
of them being rejected. On the contrary, so conciliatory were
the Bishops that they suggested certain alterations and con-
cessions that really would bring the law into harmony with the
precepts of the early Church — the object desired by the
National Assembly. But for this, they held, co-operation
between the spiritual and the lay authority was indispensable.
This was why they had suggested the convocation of a national
council and the suspension of the execution of the decrees in
the various Departements until the Church had spoken through
the voice of its visible head, or other means had been found of
making good the disuse of the canonical forms. In conclusion
they announced that they were still resolved to await the
decision of the successor of St. Peter, the sole interpreter and
mouthpiece of the whole Church.
Accordingly on November 9th this statement of the Bishops
was sent through Boisgehn to Cardinal Bernis for trans-
^ Mathiez, 335 seqq.
' Barruel, I., 151-283. For a summary of the contents and
an appreciation of the manifesto, v. Kiefer, 44 seq.
VOL. XL. M
l62 HISTORY OF THE POPES
mission to the Pope. Pius VI., it was said in the accom-
panying letter, had in his Brief to the king of September 22nd
expressed the desire that the Bishops should state their
attitude. This desire they were now fulfilling.^ Boisgelin
explained that he had drawn up the declaration on behalf of
his colleagues in the National Assembly and that it was a
literal exposition of their views. It was true, continued
Boisgelin, that their proposals for a settlement were on many
points largely in accord with the provisions of the Civil
Constitution, but they were not entirely in agreement with
them. As they were not in conflict with the principles of the
Church, he hoped that they would meet with the Pope's
approval. There were, he said, some grounds for this hope, as
the Bishops were not simply repeating their request for the
provisional acceptance of the decrees without any important
alterations and restrictions, as in the proposals made in
August ; they were proposing really important alterations in
the articles that were to be permanently accepted, especially
those concerned with episcopal elections ; moreover, even in
these cases they left it to the Pope's judgment to grant only a
provisional approval.^
This was the Bishops' last attempt at mediation between
the Holy See and the National Assembly. It was to be frus-
trated, as Boisgehn had feared, through the definite refusal of
the majority of the deputies to make any alteration in the
Civil Constitution.
1 Theiner, I., 298 seqq. ^ Kiefer, 49 seqq.
CHAPTER V.
The Fate of the Non-Juring Clergy in France — The
Reign of Terror.
The declaration made by the Bishops in the National Assembly
on October 30th, 1790, was agreed to by all the other members
of the hierarchy except three. ^ In order to ensure a united
course of action the Bishop-deputies lost no time in sending to
their colleagues twenty-eight articles, in which they recom-
mended that for the time being they should confine themselves
to passive resistance.^ Many thought that the attitude of the
hierarchy erred on the side of moderation.^ The majority in
the National Assembly was proportionately inflexible ; what
it wanted was not a compromise but the complete submission
of the Bishops and the Pope. In the hope of obtaining this
it had delayed for a time the execution of the law and had thus
afforded the episcopacy time to collect its forces.^ When it
saw that its expectation was not to be fulfilled and that the
passive resistance of the Bishops was everywhere in evidence ^
the majority in the Assembly shut its eyes more tightly than
^ The first, Lomenie de Brienne, Cardinal Archbishop of Sens,
whose mode of Hfe was scandalous, put his dissentient opinion
before the Pope on November 25, 1790 (Theiner, Hist., I.,
300-4). His intention was to confront the Holy See with an
accomplished fact, as is admitted by his admirer Mathiez (355).
The second was the thoroughly immoral Bishop Jarente of
Orleans. The third, Savine of Viviers, is noted on p. 172, n. 2.
The declaration was signed by ninety-eight clerical deputies.
2 De la Gorge, I., 306 seq. ; Mathiez, 345 seq.
* Mathiez, 347.
* Ibid., 317. The first Constitutional Bishop to be elected was
the Abbe Expilly of Quimper, on October 31, 1790.
^ Ibid., 357 seq. How high hopes ran in Paris is seen from a
letter from jNIontmorin to Bernis, of October 26, 1790, in which he
says : " Le plus grand nombre des ecclesiastiques cedera sans
murmurer," ibid., 368,
163
164 HISTORY OF THE POPES
ever to the mistake it had made in invading a domain in which
the decision rested with a higher power. As before, it refused
to treat with Rome, being loath, as Petion put it, to expose
itself to an ultramontane veto.^ It was thus that it resolved
to beat down the dutiful resistance of the clergy by brute
force, to muzzle it, in Mirabeau's words.- On November 5th,
1790, his friend Duquesnoy angrily complained in the National
Assembly that certain " functionaries " were still using the
title of Archbishop, and he demanded that the Coniite
Ecclesiastiqtie should report within a fortnight on the execution
of the Civil Constitution. Lanjuinais replied that the com-
mittee was attending to the matter and that in Quimper on
October 31st an episcopal election had already taken place in
conformity with the regulations of the new law.^ This
announcement, however, failed to satisfy the Left. On
November 6th Merlin and Lavie demanded that forcible
measures be taken against the " rebellious functionaries " ;
as disturbers of the peace they must forfeit their salaries.
Demands of this kind were supported by the Jacobin news-
papers ; in one article it was suggested that if two or three of
these gentlemen were summarily punished the others would
submit. On November 22nd the Departement authorities of
Var ordained that within the next two weeks all priests must
promise on oath to observe the Civil Constitution.^
1 Madelin, France et Rome, 327.
2 " museler le clerge."
' The Bishop of Quimper, Cotun de Saint-Luc, having died on
September 30, the Abbe Expilly, deputy in the National Assembly
and president of the Coniite ecclesiastique, was elected Bishop by
400 electors, despite the protest of the cathedral chapter. Expilly
accepted the election on November 5 " avec le respect qu'on doit
a la voix du peuple " (Tresvaux du Fravel, loc. cit., I., 140 seq.),
but he tried, through the Government, to have it confirmed by
Rome (v. Mathiez, 373 seq.). There being no hope of Expilly
being consecrated by the Bishop of Rennes, the Government
tried to solve the problem by issuing a special decree on
November 15 {ibid., ^jg seq.).
* De la Gorce, I., 320.
MIRABEAU'S ATTACK ON THE BISHOPS 165
This was the course pursued by the majority in the National
Assembly. On June 20th the patriots in Avignon declared for
union with France, and on November 20th the Assembly
decided to send troops there, ostensibly for the maintenance
of order, in reality to exert pressure on the Pope.^ At the
evening session on November 26th the Jacobin Voidel made
a speech in which sentiment alternated with sarcasm. He
began by praising the primitive Church, then stigmatized the
ecclesiastical abuses which had taken place in the old regal
period and glorified the Civil Constitution, to the observance
of which all clerics in the public service were to bind them-
selves by oath within a week. Whoever failed to take the oath
was to be removed from his post, and if he persisted in per-
forming clerical functions he was to be prosecuted as a
disturber of the peace.
Speaking on behalf of the Right, Cazales asked for the
deferment of the motion, but the Calvinist Barnave insisted
on an immediate discussion. So great was the excitement in
the Assembly that Archbishop Bonal of Clermont, who again
proposed the summoning of a national council, had difficulty
in making himself heard. On the other hand the majority
listened all the more readily to Mirabeau's violent attacks on
the Bishops and the harsh language in which he condemned
their appeal to the Pope. The fact was that the Left had no
desire for any understanding with the Holy See, nor with the
Bishops, but simply for submission to its decrees. Mirabeau,
however, being at the time in the pay of the Court, was
inveighing against the clergy in order to mislead the Left about
the real purpose of his counter-proposal. In this, on some
points, he was even more ruthless than Voidel, demanding
^ The deputies of the Left and their newspapers not only des-
cribed this resolution as the " prelude de la reunion ", i.e. the
annexation of Avignon, but imagined that it would force the Pope
to submit to the Civil Constitution or, as Legendre, the deputy for
Brest, put it, " que le Pape expedie une bulle propre a desarmer le
fanatisme du ci-devant clerge " (i.e. the clergy that were true to
Rome). See the periodical La Revolution frangaise, XL, 48 ;
Mathiez, 415 seq.
l66 HISTORY OF THE POPES
that " all Bishops who appealed to the Pope should incur
suspension " ; but as he omitted to mention any time-limit
for the oath, his motion amounted to a postponement of the
final decision. Voidel's and Mirabeau's viliiications were
replied to on the same evening by the Abbe Montesquiou and
on the following day by the Abbe Maury, who, amid the
plaudits of the Right and the ridicule and laughter of the Left,
laid great stress on the fact that in defending the rights of the
Church the clergy was advancing the cause of freedom for all,
whereas the majority was drifting towards Byzantinism : in
Constantinople the Sultan was master of both bodies and
souls, and just as in the past the Caesars had made dogmas and
laws, the National Assembly now wanted to be both king and
Pope. Montesquiou and Maury both proposed that Voidel's
motion be held over until the arrival of the Pope's decision,
but the majority sided with the Jansenist Camus, who denied
the Bishop of Rome any jurisdictional authority over the
French Church. Camus succeeded in having Voidel's motion
given priority over Mirabeau's. Before the votes were cast
the Bishops and the deputies of the Right withdrew. Maury's
warning against " making martyrs " was completely dis-
regarded ; Voidel's motion was passed unaltered.^
The Voltairians were jubilant, for if the clergy took the oath
of loyalty to the Civil Constitution, they could only be doing
so to save their incomes, and that would be the end of their
prestige. If, on the other hand, they refused to swear, they
would lose their power to function, and once again their
influence would be gone.
Blinded with hatred and drunk with power the majority
refused to realize that ultimately the new law was the denial of
a principle that had been decreed by the National Assembly
only a short while since, and had been ardently advocated by
^ De la Gorge, L, 320 seq. ; Mathikz, 386 scq. ; Kiefer,
55 seq. ; Madelin, 329 seq., where Mirabeau's procedure is well
explained. Michelet's assertion {Hist, de la Revolution franQaise,
II., 107) that the new oath did not apply to the Civil Constitution
has been refuted by Sybel (I.*, 245, n. i).
THE KING IN A DILEMMA 167
the philosophers : the principle of religious toleration.^ It also
failed to foresee that the attempt to suppress by force the
Catholic religion in France was bound to kindle the flames of
civil war and drive the king into a foreign alliance.^ Louis XVI,
was again on the horns of a fearful dilemma : if he sanctioned
the civil oath he was burdening his conscience with the
persecution of the non-juring priests and was breaking with
the Church ; if he made use of his right of veto, which was
still left to him, he would have to face open rebellion and his
deposition. In this terrible predicament he turned to Boisgelin,
the author of the proposal for mediation pubHshed on
October 30th. But after the resolution of the National
Assembly, the Archbishop had lost all courage. In two
memoranda of December 1st he represented to the king that
Rome was harbouring a delusion if it thought that the clergy
would offer a unanimous resistance ; the great majority of
the 44,000 cures would give way to fear. Nor had Boisgelin
any hope now of the people rising in defence of their religion ;
in fact, he seemed to fear any such disturbance. The prelate
being in this state of utter pessimism it is not surprising that
the advice he offered to the king was that he should propose
to the Pope that he should give his definite and no longer pro-
visional approval to the majority of the articles in the
Constitution.'^
In a letter of December 3rd, composed for him by Boisgelin,
the king implored the Pope, in the interests of religion and to
avoid a schism, to give the speediest and the most favourable
reply possible to these proposals.^
On December 3rd a special courier was dispatched with
1 SoREL, II., 216.
^ Sybel's opinion {loc. cit., 245 seq.) was that : " The persecu-
tion of the Church by the National Assembly — and no historical
event is more certain — drove Louis XVI. into a foreign alliance,
as it drove the Vendee into civil war."
* See Boisgelin 's first memorandum in Sicard, EvSqites, II.,
298, n. 3, and the second, already utilized by De la Gorge
(I., 321 seq.), in Mathiez, 425 seq.
* Masson, 489 ; Mathiez, 424 seqq.
l68 HISTORY OF THE POPES
these documents to Rome. A reply could not be expected
back in Paris before the end of the month at the very earliest.
The National Assembly was greatly concerned to force the
king to sanction the civil oath before the arrival of the Pope's
reply ^ and thus to bring its work, as it thought, to a successful
conclusion.
On December 14th Louis XVI. made a vain attempt to
pacify the Assembly, which was still simmering with excite-
ment, by assuring it of his adherence to the Constitution. The
Jacobin Press replied with attacks on the king's entourage
and even on the Assembly itself.^ The latter, adopting the
proposal of the Jansenist Camus on December 23rd, resolved
to send the king a categoric demand for the immediate publica-
tion of the sanction. Louis asked for a little more time, as the
Pope's reply had not yet arrived. When the king's answer
was announced by the President at the evening session, Camus
immediately rose to deny that the Pope had any right to
influence the French Church. His proposal, that a second and
final peremptory demand for the sanction be sent to the king,
was adopted.^
Thus Louis XV L was faced with only two alternatives :
open resistance or complete submission. In his vain hope for
peace and his fear for the safety of the queen, around whose
apartments in the Tuileries a hostile mob was raging, the
weak-willed monarch found in the counsels of Boisgelin and
those of Saint-Priest and Duport-Dutertre an excuse for
giving way again. On December 2Gth he capitulated to the
pressure put upon him by the National Assembly.* " I would
rather be King of Metz than King of France in these conditions,"
he is said to have exclaimed, " but this, too, will soon come to
1 KiEFER, 62 ; Mathiez, 451 seq.
2 Mathiez, 454 seq. For an appraisal of Louis XVI. 's attitude,
see Madelin, La Revolution, 156.
» De la Gorce, I.. 341 seq. ; Mathiez, 456 seq.
* De la Gorge, I., 343 seq. ; Mathiez, 459 seq. Boisgelin 's
advice amounted to this, that the king could sanction the law
" a condition que cette acceptation pariat etre forc6e ".
GREGOIRE 169
an end." ^ On the 2()th he wrote to the King of Spain that he
was only yielding to force and that he was asking for armed
assistance to be sent to him with all haste. ^ The royal message
announcing the sanctioning of the Civil Constitution was
received by the Left wing of the National Assembly with a
storm of applause that lasted ten minutes. Like everyone else
who could not see very far ahead, it was now hoping for a
final victory. To preclude the possibility of organized resis-
tance, the oath was to be taken almost immediately.
As a further precaution a beginning was to be made with the
taking of the oath by the Bishops and clerics ; they were to do
this publicly, in the presence of the Assembly, which repre-
sented the whole nation. The first to perform this act, on
December 27th, 1790, was Gregoire, the parish priest of
Embermenil, who tried to fortify those who were still hesitant
and timorous by assuring them that with this new law the
National Assembly had no intention of prejudicing the
Church's dogma or hierarchy or the Papal jurisdiction. After
Gregoire had taken the oath sixty-two clerics, including
fifty-one cures, followed suit. The majority was more elated
still on January 2nd, 1791, when the oath was taken by two
Bishops, Talleyrand and Gobel.^ Bishop Bonal of Clermont,
on the other hand, declared that his conscience forbade him
to do so. He wanted to propose a formula which excluded
ecclesiastical affairs and could consequently be pronounced
by all ecclesiastics. But this last attempt to go to the utter-
most limit of conciliation was indignantly rejected by the
majority. " We demand a straightforward, unconditional
oath," shouted Treilhard. Cazales, in a very restrained speech
^ Souvenirs dii Marquis de Bouille, I., 185.
* La revolution frangaise, III., 567. Sybel [loc. cit., 249, n. i)
considers that the much-quoted letter from Louis XVI. to the King
of Prussia, of December 3, 1790, asking him to summon a congress
of all the Powers, for the purpose of intervening in France, was
actually written in 1791.
3 Gobel, Bishop in partibus of Lydda, was the coadjutor of the
Bishop of Bale for the French part of the diocese.
170 HISTORY OF THE POPES
made on January 3rd, warned the Assembly against precipi-
tancy and asked that the matter be deferred until the Pope's
reply had arrived/ but the Left, who rejected any compromise
and were fearful lest the Civil Constitution be revised, insisted
on hurrying. On the motion of the Calvinist Barnave, it was
resolved that the oath must be taken before one o'clock on the
following day. Barnave was a member of the Chih des Jacobins,
and this was now the master of France. -
Every means of intimidating the clergy was used in order to
produce a favourable result on January 4th. Public opinion
was worked upon by the written and spoken word. In
pamphlets, news-sheets, and posters the non-jurors were
represented as disturbers of the peace, and even as traitors.
The men from the Clubs and other ruffians were sent on to the
public platforms to intimidate the unwilling and to applaud
the weak.
At the opening of the session Gregoire made another attempt
to seduce his " reverend brethren the cures and his respected
superiors the Bishops " by means of a sophistical explanation
of the oath. Barnave insisted on action. " We have had
enough of words," he shouted. " What we want is deeds ! "
Thereupon the president decided to make a beginning by
calling on each individual by name, while the mob outside
bawled out : "To the lamp-posts with the rebels ! . . . With
all who refuse to swear ! " The Bishop of Agen, the first to be
called, declared that he regretted that he could not take the
oath. He was joined by a cure from his diocese, then by
another, who said : " You say you want to restore the
primitive Church. Good, I shall follow my Bishop, as Lawrence
did ! " When another cure began his reply with the words :
" I am a child of the Catholic Church," the Assembly's patience
was at an end. Alarmed by the entirely unexpected resistance
and by the paucity of those who indicated their compliance,
it decided to drop the procedure of naming members and to
1 De la Gorge, I., 351 seqq.
2 Sala men's report to Zelada, of January 3, 1791, in the Melanges
d'archSoL, XVIII. (1898), 423.
THE DAY OF GLORY FOR THE FRENCH CLERGY I7I
attain its object by other means. The president now addressed
a general summons to the clergy. At first only one cure
responded, to be joined later by a few others ; the majority
stood firm ; they had been shown the way of fidelity by the
Bishop of Poitiers, who made a simple confession of faith :
" I am seventy years old," he said, " and for thirty-five of
them I have been a Bishop, doing as much good as was in my
power. Bowed by the weight of years and toil, I shall not
defame my old age by taking an oath against my conscience.
I prefer to live in poverty and I shall bear my lot in the spirit
of penance."
In the course of the session Cazales had repeatedly demanded
that the assurances that had been given again and again that
there was no intention to invade the spiritual sphere should be
definitely decreed and that the formula proposed by the
Bishop of Clermont be adopted. But Cazales' motion was not
put to the vote. Maury was unable to get a hearing. By this
time it was five o'clock. " For the last time," announced the
president, " I call on those who wish to take the oath." No
one came forward, notwithstanding the fact that Barnave's
motion, which had been adopted as a resolution, meant that all
recusants would be removed from office in accordance with
the decree of November 27th. ^
Thus it was that January 4th, 1791, turned out to be a day
of glory for the French clergy, the Bishops in particular. ^
Of the forty-four Bishops in the National Assembly, all but
1 De la Gorge, I., 357 seqq.
- Masson, 491 : " Nul jour n'est plus memorable pour le clerge
de France, qui, individuellcment, puis en masse, refusa
d'apostasier. Nul jour n'est plus honorable pour la conscience
humaine, car Tignominie du parjure est partout semblable. L'un
apres I'autre, les grands et les petits, les eveques et les cures, les
riches et les pauvrcs, les nobles et les manants vinrent confesser
leur foi et reclamer leur Dieu. Point de transaction honteuse,
point de basse compromission ! A ceux qui refusent, la mis6re, la
persecution, I'exil, la guillotine ; ils le savent et ils refusent, et ils
proclament leur refus en face de I'Assemblee irritee et des tribunes
hurlantes. Cela fut grand ! "
172 HISTORY OF THE POPES
two had stood fast. Of the other clerics, many of whom failed
to perceive the underlying reason and the real nature of the
Civil Constitution, 107 had taken the oath, but within the
next few days twenty of these realized their rashness and
retracted, so that finally barely a third of the clerics in the
National Assembly submitted to the schismatic law.^ In the
Departemenis, too, the number of those who gave way was far
less than had been prophesied by Boisgelin and other
pessimists. Of the whole hierarchy the only members who
joined the deputies Talleyrand and Gobel were the three who
had refused to subscribe to the declaration of October 30th,
1790, namely Lomenie de Brienne, Jarente, and Savine, and
their personalities were such that the French Church was
strengthened rather than weakened by their desertion. ^
The town clergy, on the whole, acquitted itself nobly. Even
in Paris, where it was subjected to the threats of the mob and
an unbridled Press, the result was so unsatisfactory from the
Government's point of view that it had to present a false
account of it. All the same, of fifty cures twenty-three took the
oath.^ In the other large towns, Orleans, Nantes, and Lyons
excepted, the result was far more favourable to the Church.
In Strasbourg and in Bordeaux only three cures took the
oath, in Rennes only two, in Nimes and Arras only one ; in
Aix it was taken by only one vicar, in Montpelher by not a
single cure or vicar.* To the lower clergy in the rural districts
the Revolution had brought high hopes ; materially the new
law could only be of benefit to them. But with all their
1 De la Gorge, I., 362.
2 Ibid., 387. To these three must be added two Bishops in
partibus, Dubourg-Miroadot, Bishop of Babylon, and Martial de
Brienne, coadjutor of his uncle in Sens. For Martial de Brienne
and Jarente, see Sciout, 115 seqq., for the extravagant Savine,
see the account in Gendry, II., 133 seq. ; also, S. Brugal, Le
schisme constitutionnel dans I'Arddche, La Font de Savine,
Toulouse, 1889.
3 PiSANi, L'^glise de Paris, I., 190 seqq. ; De la Gorge, I.,
363 seqq.
* De la Gorge, I., 387 seq.
THE MAJORITY LOYAL TO THE CHURCH I73
hostility to the old monarchic rule, most of them wanted to
remain good Catholic priests. They tried to escape from the
dilemma by making reservations in the taking of the oath.
Many took it, but refused to enter into relations with the new
Constitutional Bishops. Exact figures cannot be given because
the statistics are untrustworthy and incomplete. It is certain,
however, that those who took the oath within the first six
months after the promulgation of the law were in the minority,
which was further reduced very appreciably after Pius VI. 's
final condemnation of the Civil Constitution.^
The National Assembly's hope of subjugating the whole of
the clergy by using every possible means of intimidation was
frustrated by the majority's loyalty to the Church. In spite
of this failure, which was felt very sorely, the Assembly set
about founding, with a minority of the clerics, a new State
Church, for which room was to be made by dismissing and
persecuting the majority. The difficulties that hindered this
undertaking from its inception were so great that the imposi-
tion of the oath was regretted. ^ But there was to be no retreat ;
the Assembly was too dazzled with success even to contem-
plate it. Mirabeau, however, saw the situation in its true light.
" If the National Assembly," he declared, " imagines that the
dismissal of 20,000 priests is an easy matter, it is taking a
curious view of the situation." ^ Not only the dismissal but
^PiSANi, I., 184 seq.; De la Gorge, I., 372-399; Mathiez,
165 seqq. The information given by Sagnac in the Rev. d'hist.
moderne (VIII., 97 seq.), where a map is attached, is not entirely
accurate. Among the parish priests who took the oath was the
future Bishop of Aix-la-Chapelle, Berdolet, who was to suffer
under Robespierre; see A. Kroener, M. A. Berdolet, eveque
constitutionnel du Haut-Rhin, Rixheim, 1898.
^ " L'embarras que donne a I'Assemblee le decret sur le serment
des ecclesiastiques fonctionnaires pubhcs est cependant tres
evident," wTote La Mank to Mercy- Argenteau as early as
January 26, 1791. " On voudrait bien n'avoir pas ordonne ce
serment, que ceux-la qui le pretent, regardent comme inutile."
Correspondance de Mirabeau avec La Mank, III., 25.
3 De la Gorge, I., 409.
174 HISTORY OF THE POPES
also the replacement of the priests proved diffictilt, since in
many Departements no priest could be found to serve the new-
Church 1 ; in many cases it was necessary to appoint fugitive
and suspended priests from Germany and Holland. Further,
the National Assembly found itself compelled to make altera-
tions in the Civil Constitution in order to render it practicable.
As in this respect it passed decrees in the manner of a Church
Council, the chairman of the Comite Ecclesiastique, Treilhard,
decreed a detailed instruction on the consecration and canoni-
cal institution of the new Constitutional Bishops, as though he
were a Cardinal of a Roman Congregation. ^ Further difficulties
were raised by those of the Constitutional Bishops who were
conservative. Lomenie de Brienne, Jarente, and Savine
refused to perform the rite of consecration. The first to consent
to do so was Talleyrand,^ and this was nothing but a mockery
of the Assembly's professed aim of restoring the conditions of
apostohc times. The ambitious Gobel, on taking possession
of Notre-Dame on March 17th, 1791, four days after he had
been elected by twenty-one priests and 664 laymen as successor
to the emigre Archbishop of Paris, De Juigne, held a showy
procession through the capital, accompanied by the band of
1 Mathiez, 468.
^ Ibid., 470 seq.
^ The first episcopal consecration was imparted on February 24,
1 791 , by Talleyrand, under the protection of the National Guard and
assisted by the Bishops in partihus Gobel and Miroadot. The
recipients were the parish priests Expilly and Marolles, who were
to be installed in the sees of Quimper and Soissons. The rite was
performed in accordance with the Ponttficale Romanum, except
for the oath of loyalty to the Pope and the reading of the Papal
Bulls (there being none to read). See [Gosselin], Vie de M. Emery,
I., Paris, 1861, 255 seq. Cf. J. M. Pilven, Le premier eveque
constitutionnel, Expilly, dveque de Finisiere, 1790-1794, Quimper,
191 2. After committing this sacrilege, of which the nuncio
Dugnani was supplied with a reliable account from an eye-witness,
Talleyrand laid aside his ecclesiastical dress for good. In 1791 he
resigned his see and lived henceforth as a layman. When the
concordat was concluded he obtained a Brief Of secularization
from Pius VII.
TWO HOSTILE RELIGIOUS CAMPS I75
the National Giiard.^ The assumption of office by the Con-
stitutional Bishops was carried out in a similarly worldly
manner in the provinces.^ The moving spirit of the Constitu-
tional Church was Gregoire, who was elected Bishop of
Loir-et-Cher. Filled with Galilean prejudices against the
Holy See, he was very active, but later even he was forced to
protest against the anti-Christian tendencies of the
Revolution.^ It was not long, too, before Gobel had to
expiate his apostasy by a tragic death. These examples alone
show that the Constitutional Bishops are not to be con-
demned wholesale as men devoid of faith and morals. There
were some whose conduct was a public scandal, but they were
in the minority ; the others were either simply misguided or
were enthusiastic adherents of the schismatic cause.* The
lawful Bishops denounced their constitutional successors as
intruders, schismatics, and usurpers of episcopal jurisdiction,
and declared all their official acts to be null and void, but in
every case they were ejected from their sees, often by force. ^
Though there were many places where the people submitted
to the new regime, there were thousands of others where it
offered resistance. This was particularly true of the strictly
rehgious population in the whole of north-western France, in
Flanders, and Alsace. Following the example of the king, the
loyalists here refused to accept the sacraments from the
priests who had taken the oath. And so the whole country
was soon split into two hostile religious camps, consisting of
the adherents of the " State " priests who had been sworn in
{assermentes) and of the supporters of the non- jurors {inser-
mentes), namely the loyal Catholics who clung fast to the
lawful clergy.^
^ PisANi, Repert. biogr. de V episcopal constitutionnel , Paris,
1906, 53 seq. Cf. PiSANi, loc. cit., I., 205 seq. ; G. Gautherot,
Gobel, Paris, 191 1.
- De la Gorge, I., 460 seq.
3 MOURRET, 141.
* Pisani, I., 25, 70 seq., 377 seq. ; Mourret, 142 seq.
^ KlEFER, 74.
* De la Gorge, I., 415 seq. ; Mourret, 144 seq. For Normandy
176 HISTORY OF THE POPES
In view of the ecclesiastical confusion into which the
National Assembly had thrown the whole of France, the Pope,
too, broke his long silence at last. As in his deaUngs with
Joseph II., Leopold of Tuscany, and Catherine II., the Pope,
in this crisis, too, had shown his desire to avoid a rupture.
Unfortunately, however, he had set his hopes too long on
Louis XVI. 's resistance. He also feared that little attention
would be paid to him by the many Bishops who were anxious
for a settlement and by the clerics who were ignorant of the
real situation.^ The position he finally took up was based on
very sound reasons : firstly, those of principle, then regard for
the other Cathohc States, which were to be given no oppor-
tunity of following the French example. A further considera-
tion was the persistent adherence of the French Bishops to the
GaUican hberties, which made it very dangerous to relax the
connexion with Rome and to concede the French Church a
special and unparalleled position. ^ It was these reasons, not
the events in Avignon,^ which underlay the cautious and
hesitant policy of Pius VI. Immediately after the arrival of
the last far-reaching proposals sent to Rome on December 3rd,
the Pope, citing the verdict of the Inquisition, had informed
the ambassador, Bernis, that a definite approval of the most
important clauses of the Civil Constitution could not be given. ^
Equally clear language was used in the Papal communications
made to a number of French Bishops.^ An additional reason
there is a full description (1,148 quarto pages) in E. Sevestre,
Les problemes religieux de la Revolution et de l' Empire en Normandie.
II. La constitution civile du clerge 1791-1795. Paris, 1924.
1 MOURRET, 124.
^This is very well brought out by Kiefer {jj scq.). Cf.
Berger, 30.
* As Mathiez exerts himself to prove (478 seq.).
* Masson, Bernis, 490 ; Mathiez, 476.
* Brief to the Bishop of Bale concerning the erection of a new
see for the Departementoi the Upper Rhine, of December 11, 1790,
in Theiner, Hist., I., 23 seq. ; Zelada's letter to tlie Bishop of
Rennes, of December 15, 1790, in Bourgin, France et Rome, 5 ;
Brief to the Archbishop of Avignon, of December 22, 1790, ibid.
THE BISHOPS MOSTLY LOYAL I77
for postponing the reply to the declaration of October 30th
made by the whole French episcopate was the presumption,
based on its previous behaviour, that it would not come to any
definite decision without the Papal assent ^ ; with all their
Gallicanism, the Bishops were on the whole loyal to the Church.
This favourable opinion of the Pope's was not belied : on
January 4th not only the Bishops but also a large number of
other clerics showed that they did not dare, without the
Pope's assent, to swear allegiance to the Civil Constitution,
with its deep encroachment on the discipline and constitution
of the Church.
On the same day as this decisive event took place in France
Pius VI., who hitherto had been alone in opposing the
dangerous aspirations of the French Government, was assured
by the Spanish ambassador, Azara, that he could rely on
Spain's support.^ This decided him to publish his condemna-
tion of the Civil Constitution,^ but with his customary cir-
cumspection he took his time about it. While he was revising
his reply to the French hierarchy ^ he sent out some more
letters to individual Bishops, exhorting them to stand firm
against the new law.^ On February 23rd Lomenie was
threatened with the loss of his cardinalitial rank, failing the
immediate retractation of his oath of allegiance to the Civil
Constitution.^ After these incidents, no one of any foresight
could have been surprised by the answer made, after careful
1 KlEFER, 78.
'^ Theiner, I., 313 seqq.
^ Bernis' report of January 5, 1791, in Mathiez, 489.
* Bernis' report of February 8, 1791, ihid.
^ Brief to the Vicar-General of Dol, of February 2, 1791, and
another to the Bishop of Toulon, of February 9, 1791, in Theiner,
I., 25 seq.
* Ibid., 28 seq. Lomenie informed the Pope of his resignation
of the cardinalate in a letter of March 26, 1791, tr>'ing at the
same time to conceal his real attitude in a cloak of sophistries
(Guilleaume, I., J}, seq.). Pius VI. made his reply in a lengthy
speech addressed to the Consistory of September 26. See
Theiner, I., 105 seq.
178 HISTORY OF THE POPES
consultation with the deputizing Cardinals, on March 10th,
1791, to Cardinal Rochefoucauld, Bishop Boisgelin, and the
other signatories of the declaration of October 30th.
The Brief in question, betraying traces of repeated emenda-
tion, was unusually long.^ It was, in fact, a treatise in which
not merely the Civil Constitution but all the errors and
encroachments of the National Assembly — " by which expres-
sion We mean in every case the dominant party only ", care
was taken to add — were subjected to severe criticism and a
detailed rebuttal. It condemned the breach of the concordat,
the seizure of the church goods and the suppression of the
religious orders, also the definitions issued in connexion with
the rights of man regarding the unlimited liberty of belief and
the Press and human equality, for they contradicted the
principles of the Church. ^ The hberty and equality so highly
vaunted by the Assembly, said the Brief, were used as means
of destroying the Cathohc Church.
Before proceeding to elucidate in greater detail the Civil
Constitution the Pope declared that a secular assembly had
no right to make laws affecting spiritual matters. He went on
to show that these laws dealt not merely with disciplinary
regulations but with regulations that touched too nearly on
unalterable dogma. ^ In any case, ecclesiastical disciphne was
not to be altered arbitrarily by the secular power, since
disciphne and dogma were intimately related.
As for the various regulations laid down in the Civil Con-
stitution, the Pope protested against them in the first place
1 Theiner, I., 32-71.
2 " Eg quippe concilio decernitur, in iure positum esse, ut homo
in societate constitutus omnimoda gaudeat libertate, ut turbari
scilicet circa religionem non debeat, in eiusque arbitrio sit do
ipsius religionis argumento, quidquid velit, opinari, loqui,
scribere, ac typis etiam evulgare. Quae sane monstra ab ilia
hominum inter se aequalitate, naturaeque libertate derivari ac
emanare declaravit."
* " Verum inter decreta ipsa non solum disciplinaria, sed et alia
non pauca in eversionem puri immutabilisque dogmatis con-
geruntur, ut hactenus demonstravimus."
THE BRIEF AGAINST THE CIVIL CONSTITUTION I79
on the ground that they were aimed at the aboHtion of the
primacy and jurisdiction of the Pope. As for the diocesan
rearrangement, it was not just a question of a few sees being
affected ; it meant the overthrow of almost every see in the
realm. Such a rearrangement could not be approved by the
Pope without previous inquiry of the various Bishops and the
parishes. The regulations regarding the election of Bishops
not only amounted to a breach of the concordat but were a
revival of the doctrines of Luther and Calvin. The episcopal
council destroyed the Ordinary's power ; the payment of the
Bishops by the State was likely to undermine their authority.
As for the reduction of the number of parishes, the Bishops had
already said what was necessary in their declaration.
There followed an exposure of the hostile spirit shown by
the National Assembly towards the Catholic Church. The
latter had been despoiled of all its goods while the Protestants
had been left with theirs, although their title was based on
forcible appropriation, not on legitimate bequests. " With the
National Assembly," the Brief continued, " the treaties made
with the Protestants held good, but not the canonical regula-
tions and the concordat made between Francis I. and the
Holy See." Another manifestation of hostility towards the
Catholic Church was the suppression of the chapters and, worst
of all, the Orders, The decree of February 13th, 1790, pro-
hibiting the taking of vows, not only condemned the religious
houses to death but was also an attack on Papal rights. The
savage persecution of the nuns recalled the exploits of Luther.
The Pope marvelled at the steadfastness of these women and
urged the Bishops to give them every support.
" To return to the subject of the Civil Constitution," the
Brief continued, " much more might be said about this law,
for from beginning to end it contains nothing that ought not
to be censured, and all its regulations are so intertwined that
hardly one could be approved of." ^ To a law of this kind,
^ " Siquidem a principio usque adilliusexitumnihilferein eo est,
quod non sit cavendum, ac reprehendendum, omnesque eius
sensus inter se adeo nexi, consentientesque sunt, ut vix ulla pars
sit ab erroris suspicione libera."
l8o HISTORY OF THE POPES
which was based on the principles of notorious errors, the
Bishop of Autun, according to the newspapers, had bound
himself by oath, which action was condemned in the severest
terms. The illicit oath demanded by the National Assembly
was compared with those that had been demanded by
Henry VI. and Henry VHI. of England. " Just as Henry VIH.
pretended that the form of oath that he proposed for the
Bishops amounted to nothing but civil and secular loyalty,
whereas it really contained the destruction of Papal authority,
similarly the assembly that dominates France has actually
denied the supreme head of the Church all power through the
Civil Constitution, seeing that it ordered the Bishops to have
no communication with Us except to let Us know what had
already been done and completed without Us."
The behaviour of the Bishop of Autun was then very
effectively contrasted with that of the other Bishops. The
latter received the praise they deserved ; keeping the law of
the Lord with unspotted souls, they were showing loyalty as
strong as iron, retaining the dogmas and doctrine of their
predecessors, adhering to the see of Peter, exercising and
defending their rights, resisting the innovations while waiting
for the Papal answer, which they would accept as the basis of
their conduct. They all spoke with one voice, they all had one
confession ; there was only one faith, one tradition, and one
discipline.^ Bossuet, who enjoyed so great a reputation in
France and was anything but suspect, had drawn a similar
comparison between Thomas of Canterbury and Thomas
Cranmer.
As the Bishop of Autun had not relented, despite his
chapter's protest, the Pope threatened to excommunicate him
and all who followed him in the way of perjury. Finally, he
1 " Ibi quidcm immaculate ambulantes in lege Domini, magnam
praetulcrunt animi constantiam in servando dogmate doctrinaque
suorum praedecessorum, in inhaerendo primae Petri cathedrae, in
suis exercendis tuendisque iuribus, in adversando novitatibus, in
nostrum exspectando responsum, unde quid agendum sibi esset
agnoscerent. Una eorum omnium vox fuit, una confessio, sicut
una fides est unaque traditio et disciplina."
THE pope's appeal TO THE LOYAL BISHOPS l8l
appealed to the loj^al Bishops as his beloved and respected
brethren. Although their previous conduct had shown that he
had no need to urge them on, nevertheless, in view of the
disastrous confusion of the times, he desired to warn them to
preserve their unity so as to be able to defend as one body the
Catholic religion against the snares and foolish enterprises of
the new law-givers. " Be, therefore, of strong and unshakable
courage, do not allow yourselves to be frightened by dangers
or threats from the path on which you have set your feet, and
be mindful of the fearless reply made by David to the giant,
by the Maccabees to Antiochus, by Basil to Valens, by
Hilary to Constantius, by Ivo of Chartres to King Philip."
The Pope then recounted once again what he had done to
avert the present disaster from the French Church, but his
complaisance had been rewarded \vith ingratitude, one instance
of which had been the support given to the revolution in
Avignon. Hitherto he had refrained from excommunicating
the authors of the Civil Constitution, making every effort by
means of gentleness and patience to avoid a schism and to
restore peace to France. For this reason he asked them to let
him know what more they thought he ought to do to bring
about unity of thought. They were in a better position to
advise him on this point, as he was so far from the scene of
action. But such proposals as they might make him were not
to offend in the shghtest degree against Catholic dogmas and
the universal discipline. This last proviso shows that there
was no question, as has often been supposed, of the Pope's
inviting further proposals similar to those already made by
the Bishops.^ In any case, such a request was ruled out by the
1 KiEFER (79 seq.) views the request as a clear indication that the
Bishops' Gallican principles were being considered. But the whole
passage is merely an expression of courtesy : if there was still any
way of restoring unity without offending in the slightest degree
against Catholic doctrine and discipline, they might bring it to his
attention. Similarly, in the Brief of April 13, 1791 : " Hortati
sumus episcopos ut ii, quorum oculis res ipsae observantur.
Nobis desuper agendi rationem quandam exhiberent, si inveniri
l82 HISTORY OF THE POPES
utter condemnation, both in the Brief and in the simultaneous
letter to the king/ of the Civil Constitution, as being in conflict
with the dogma and the constitution of the Church and as
conducive to schism and the destruction of the Catholic
religion.
In any case, suggestions for coming to terms were irrecon-
cilable with the oath demanded by the National Assembly,
which scouted any kind of agreement. Nevertheless, the
Bishop-deputies still hoped against hope that a settlement
would be reached ; consequently the Papal Brief was most
unwelcome to them, in spite of its high praises of the French
clergy,^ as its whole tenor ruled out any sort of compromise.
Regarding themselves as representative of the whole of the
French hierarchy, these Bishops, much to the dissatisfaction of
that section of the clergy that held closely to its faith, ^
refrained from publishing the Brief, whereby they were
guided also by the Galilean principle that they were entitled
fortasse poterit, a catholico dogmate disciplinaque universal!
minima dissentaneam, in nostram deliberationem atque examen
addiicendam." Theiner, L, 8o. It is clear that Pius VI. thought
that no such solution was possible.
1 In the Brief of March lo, 1791 (not cited by Theiner) it was
stated that the Civil Constitution contained many false doctrines
and introduced a new doctrine, a new hierarchy, and a new
ecclesiastical discipline. Wherefore the king's over-hasty sanc-
tioning of this law without waiting for the Pope's reply was
sharply condemned. The only way the king could repair this
serious blunder was to protect the loyal Bishops. A private letter,
in French, dated March 11, 1791, from Pius VI. to Louis XVI.,
was attached to the Latin Brief, but it has not yet been located.
Masson, 494.
2 That Pius VI. intended from the outset to treat the Bishop-
deputies with kindness is shown by the highly complimentary
expressions he used with regard to Boisgelin, the most influential
of them, when writing to him through Zelada on December 21,
1790. See Mathiez, 477, n. 2, who notes correctly that Gendry
(II., 137) is wrong in attributing this letter to the year 1791.
8 RiCHEMONT, Correspondance, 483.
THE BRIEF TO THE FRENCH CLERGY AND LAITY 183
to examine Papal documents before making them public.^
This attitude of the Bishops suited the poUcy of the Govern-
ment, which also kept the Brief a secret and was determined
to make another attempt in Rome to induce the Pope to
approve of the Civil Constitution. This task was entrusted to
Count Philippe de Segur, Cardinal Bernis having been recalled
in March, 1791. On February 22nd the Cardinal had written
a dignified and decisive letter, refusing to pledge himself
unconditionally to the Constitution, it being his wish to live
and die in the bosom of the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman
Church.^ It appears from Segur's instruction that the French
Government hoped that Pius VI. would be impelled to give
way by the threat to Avignon.^ But this hope proved to be
valueless. On April 13th, without waiting for a reply from the
French hierarchy, the Pope addressed a Brief to the whole of
the French clergy and laity, repeating his absolute con-
demnation of the Constitution, as being built on a heretical
foundation, and threatening with the direst penalties all clerics
who complied with it. Whoever took the civil oath and did not
retract it within forty days would be suspended. The elections
of the Constitutional Bishops were declared to be null and void,
their consecration and official acts illicit and sacrilegious ; all
who took part in them, and the parish priests installed by the
Constitutional Bishops, likewise incurred suspension ; if they
remained obdurate, they would be excommunicated. The
Pope concluded by urging the clergy most earnestly to resist
schism with firmness and he exhorted all the Catholics of
France to remain true to the religion of their forefathers, to
pay no heed to the deadly doctrines of contemporary philo-
sophers, to have no dealings with the intruders, no matter
whether they called themselves archbishops, bishops, or parish
^ KiEFER, 80. The Venetian ambassador in Paris also reported
on the Bishops' Galilean convictions on March 28, 1790. See
KovALEwsKY, I dispucci degli ambasciatori Veneti alia corte di
Francia durante la Rivoluzione, I., Torino, 1895, 238.
* Masson, 494 ; Mathiez, 494.
' Mathiez, 495 seq.
184 HISTORY OF THE POPES
priests, to follow only their lawful pastors, and to remain in
communion with the visible head of the Church.^ Further
Briefs condemning in similar terms the oath of loyalty to the
Constitution were sent in the next few days to Cardinal Rohan
of Strasbourg and the Archbishop of Avignon.^
After this decisive step the situation developed with great
rapidity. On May 2nd, 1791, the nuncio transmitted the Brief
of April 13th to the Foreign Minister Montmorin and informed
him at the same time that the Pope could not recognize Segur
as the representative of France, since he had taken the civil
oath unreservedly. Montmorin, on some pretext or other,
refused to accept the Brief and retorted that if the Pope
persisted in withholding his recognition of Segur the King of
France would be forced, in defence of the nation's honour and
his own, to break off diplomatic relations with the Holy See
and to withdraw his toleration of the latter's representative
in Paris. ^
After the arrival of the second Brief the Bishop-deputies
could no longer keep the first a secret and had to frame a reply
to it. In a document dated May 3rd they tried in every possible
way to defend their political as well as their ecclesiastical
conduct in the National Assembly and their proposals for a
settlement. In so doing they again revealed quite unmistakably
their haziness on fundamental questions raised by the
principles of unlimited liberty and equahty that had been
proclaimed in France, also their Galilean convictions. Their
1 Theiner, L, 75-88. Ibid., go, the accompanying Brief to
Louis XVI. and (91) the Brief to Cardinal Rochefoucauld and the
rest of the hierarchy. Cf. Bull. Cont., VI., 3, 2325 seq.
2 Theiner, I., 94 seq.
3 Masson, 508 ; Mathiez, 511. In the Brief sent by Pius VI. to
Louis XVI, on April 13, 1791, on the subject of Bernis' recall, he
made it clear that he would have to reject anyone who had sworn
loyalty to the Civil Constitution (Theiner, I., 89) ; ibid., 345 seq.,
the official memorandum on the reasons for Segur 's rejection. On
May 14, 1 79 1, the Governor of Civitavecchia received orders to
restrain Segur from travelling to Rome. See Bourgin, La France
et Rome, IV., 75. Cf. Gendry, IL, 155 seq.
THE GALLICANISM OF THE BISHOP-DEPUTIES 185
response to the Pope's request for a last attempt to pacify
men's minds was an offer to resign en bloc if this step would
avert a schism and restore peace. ^
The Galilean spirit of the Bishop-deputies was also shown in
the objections they raised (much to the regret of Zelada, the
Cardinal Secretary of State, and of the Pope himself) ^ to that
passage in the Brief of April 13th, 1791, which dealt with the
penalties to be imposed on apostate Bishops. As opposed to
this they put forward the Galilean standpoint that no
Frenchman might be judged in Rome without a previous trial,
which was to be held in France by French commissaries
delegated by the Pope. Consequently, they would only accept
the Brief if a proviso was added. ^ A large part of the rest of the
episcopate, however, which did not belong to the National
Assembly, was for accepting the Brief as it stood.* This
proposal was so objectionable to the Jacobins that they put
into circulation a spurious document purporting to ratify the
Civil Constitution.^ The trick failed, however, for those who
were true to the Church distributed the genuine Brief, and this
made such an impression that everywhere recantations were
made by clerics who had taken the oath from fear or through
ignorance.^ This development was so unwelcome to the
National Assembly that on June 17th, 1791, it prohibited, on
pain of the heaviest penalties, the publication of any Papal
edict that had not been previously examined and confirmed by
the Assembly and published by the king.' Previous to this
1 Macedoine litteraire, III., 95-158. Cf. Kiefer, 81 seq.
' Zelada's letter to Salamon, of November 2, 1791, in
RiCHEMONT, Correspondance secrete de I'abbe Salamon avec le
card. Zelada, Paris, 1898, 91.
^ Ihid., 81 seq. ; Kiefer, 84 seq.
* Kiefer, 86, where it is noted that Salamon and Bonnand
overestimated the number of these Bishops.
5 Gendry, II., 159.
* Mgr. de Cressac's report to Zelada, dated Paris, June 7, 1791,
in Theiner, I., 327 ; ibid., the letter from Bishop Grimaldi of
No yon, May 30, 1791.
" Pressense, L'^glise et la Rdvolut. frang., Paris, 1889, 201.
l86 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the Paris patriots had utiUzed a fine May day to ridicule the
Pope outrageously, the police making no attempt to intervene.
An effigy was made of Pius VI., holding in one hand the Brief
against the Civil Constitution, in the other a dagger. A band
round the forehead bore the label " Fanaticism ", and on
another round the breast was v^Titten " Civil War ". This
caricature was burned, amid the plaudits of the mob, in the
Passage Radziwill.^ The nuncio Dugnani, who for a long time
past had had to look on helplessly while the rights of the Holy
See and the Church were constantly attacked, made repeated
requests that this insult to his sovereign should be redressed.
His efforts, however, were of no avail, and when the head of a
policeman, which had been hacked off his body, was thrown
into his carriage as he was driving through the streets of Paris,
he left the capital on May 31st, after making another vain
attempt to obtain satisfaction by appeahng to international
law.2 The auditor Giuho Ouarantotti remained behind in the
nunciature and endeavoured to maintain diplomatic relations
more by following his own ideas than the instructions of the
Secretary of State, Zelada, who had to give him the order
twice before he finally asked for his passports on August 2nd.
The Foreign Minister, Montmorin, protested against this step,^
but without any justification, since he himself had stated that
the Pope would not be allowed to retain a representative in
Paris if Segur was not recognized in Rome.^
Pius VI. could hardly be blamed for refusing to retain in
Paris an official representative who had to witness the daily
1 Masson, 509. Cf. the contemporary engraving entitled
" Manichino di Pio VI. bruciato al palazzo rcale di Parigi 4 Maggie
1791 ".
*The last *dispatch was dated May 30, 1791 (Nunziat. di
Francia, 575, Papal Secret Archives), not May 16, as given by
Gendry (II., 160) and De la Gorge (I., 437). Cf. Bridier,
Salamon, 3 (English translation, London, 191 1), where the
departure is made to occur quite wrongly at the end of 1 790, and
Hist.-pol. Blatter, CXXIII. (1899), 788 seqq., 853 seqq.
* RiCHEMONT, loc. Clt., l8l.
* Cf. above, p. 184.
THE ABBE SALAMON A PAPAL AGENT 187
insults offered to the Holy See and the Church. Nevertheless,
it was highly important and necessary for the Curia to have in
Paris a confidential agent who could be relied upon to render
an account of what was happening and to transmit Papal
instructions to the French episcopate and clergy. Fortunately,
Pius VI. had such a person at his disposal : the Abbe Salamon.
Salamon was a native of Carpentras, in the Comtat Venaissin,
and was thus a Papal subject by birth. Since 1784 he had
been a councillor in the Paris Parlement, and after the
suspension of the parlements he became a member of the
Chambre des Vacances. He had been in correspondence with
Cardinal Zelada since 1786.i On May 25th, 1791, the Cardinal
had written to him : " You see that very soon we shall have
no accredited agent there, ^ in which case you will be more and
more useful and necessary to us. The Pope is convinced that
in such an eventuality you will not fail to redouble your zeal
and your activity, so as to keep us exactly informed of what
is happening from day to day and to give us accurate and
precise information on everything which might be of value to
us and which we ought to know, so that we may see clearly
what steps to take in these unhappy times. It is at the express
command of His Holiness that I am communicating his desires
to you. I am thoroughly convinced that this will suffice for
you to justify his confidence in full." ^ Salamon's memoirs
show that Pius VI. wrote him a letter in his own hand, six
pages long, in which he praised him in glowing terms for the
services he had rendered hitherto, and imparted to him instruc-
tions for the immediate future.* Quarantotti received with his
letter of recall the order to hand over to Salamon the documents
belonging to the nunciature which he was not taking away with
him. Salamon was asked to send to Rome all the newspapers.
1 Bridier, loc. cit., xiv, 325 seq. ; Richemont, loc. cit., xv ;
Gendry, II., 102 seq.
2 " Aucune personne avouee."
^ Richemont, xvi.
^Bridier, 4. Richemont (xvi, n. 2) was unable to find the
letter.
l88 HISTORY OF THE POPES
brochures, and periodicals which had liitherto been sent by
the nunciature.^
After these preparations had been made Salamon was able
to take over his post as private agent of the Holy See on
Quarantotti's departure.^ His desire was that at least the
French Bishops should be informed of his confidential position
vis a vis the Holy See, as then they would give more con-
sideration to his representations. Zelada, however, would not
fall in with this view. He thought it better that Salamon's
real position should not be known, or at any rate that those
concerned should appear not to know it. Salamon could then
act quite freely and could communicate his views to the Pope
without being influenced in any direction.
From now on Salamon sent a full report every week to the
Papal Secretary of State, always enclosing everything in the
way of periodicals, brochures, and even caricatures, which
might be of special interest to the Curia.
It can easily be understood how useful it was for the Holy
See to have a reliable and devoted reporter in France, where
the Church's situation grew more critical every day. Salamon's
zeal was so great that from time to time he had to be restrained
by the more level-headed Secretary of State and the Pope. This
was shown in the question of taking steps against the Con-
stitutional intruders. The Brief of April 13th, 1791, had
threatened them with excommunication, and this extreme
measure was demanded in various quarters.^ Salamon was all
1 RiCHEMONT, XVii.
2 Richemont (ibid.) thinks that the nearest description of
Salamon's peculiar position is " charge des affaires " (as Salamon
describes himself in one of his letters), presumably as distinct
from " charge d'affaires ", an official position which was not held
by Salamon. Bellesheim {Hist.-pol. Blatter, CXXI. [1817]; 801)
describes him more accurately as " private charge d'affaires of the
Holy See ", but this, too, would indicate an official position. For
this reason I suggest " private agent ". Bridier is certainly wrong
in using the title " Internonce " in his edition of Salamon's
Memoires.
^ The " *Lettere dell' ab. Salamon " to Zelada, from August 29,
NON-JURING AND CONSTITUTIONAL CLERGY 189
in favour of it, whereas Boisgelin deemed it premature and
dangerous. Most of the Bishops sided with the Archbishop of
Aix. On November 2nd, 1791, Zelada wrote to Salamon that
the Pope was also of their opinion, as otherwise the king
would have to be included in the ban, since he had sanctioned
the fatal Constitution. On November 16th he repeated this
statement of opinion, stressing once again that in such cases
the Holy Father weighed the pros and cons with the greatest
care before fulfilling his duty.^
The little freedom still left to the loyal Catholics was almost
everywhere disputed by the clubs and the Constitutional
clergy.2 Although the National Assembly had decided that the
non-juring clergy could not be forbidden to celebrate Mass in
the parish churches ^ the mob in Paris tried to stop this
happening on Ascension Day, 1791. Similar incidents occurred
in nearly all the provinces. The Constitutional clergy, whose
services were shunned by the people, who flocked to those
held by the loyal priests, were successful in obtaining the
1791, to May 21, 1792, and *Zelada's instructions from January 5,
1 791, to June 5, 1793, have been preserved in the Papal Secret
Archives. See Richemont, loc. cit., supplemented in the Melanges
d'archeol., XVIII. (1898), ^20 seqq.
1 Richemont, loc. cit., 91, 129; Hist.-pol. Blatter, CXXIII.
(1899), 859 ; the faculties granted to the French Bishops on
May 4, 1791, in Theiner, L, 97 seq. ; Bull. Cont., VI., i, 2341.
•^ Richemont, 81, 96, 128 seq. In the summer of 1791 the Bishop
of Langres, De la Luzerne, made a proposal regarding the measures
to be taken by non-juring clerics when conducting baptisms,
weddings, and funerals, but it failed to meet with universal
acceptance and was allowed to drop. See Richemont, 81 seq.,
91, 483 ; KiEFER, 86 seq. Finally Pius VI. issued an instruction
on the matter to the French Bishops on September 28, 1791, but
as it was opposed at first by the Bishop-deputies it was not published
till the beginning of December. See Kiefer, 91 ; Gendry, II.,
162 seq.
3 Law of May 7, 1791, which also allowed loyal Catholics to_,
hire churches, with the threat, however, that if attacks were made
on the Civil Constitution they would be closed immediately.
De la Gorge, I., 432 seq. ; Sciout, 167 seq.
igO HISTORY OF THE POPES
support of the clubs. Together with them they made common
cause against the non-juring priests, whose position grew more
and more untenable.^
The direction in which tlie situation was developing was
shown by the transference on July 11th, 1791, with much
pomp, of Voltaire's body to the church of Ste-Genevieve, which
had been converted into a heathen Pantheon. The majority
in the National Assembly had given its permission with
enthusiasm for the apotheosis of a man who had staked his
talent and his honour on the destruction of Christianity. ^
One of the last resolutions taken by the Assembly, on
September 14th, 1791, had been to approve of the union of
Avignon and the Venaissin with the French realm. ^ As soon
as Pius VI. received news of the rape of this possession, which
had lawfully belonged to the Holy See for five centuries, he
raised a solemn protest and communicated it to the
ambassadors of all the Powers.^ The bandits who, dubbing
themselves patriots, had taken possession of the Papal palace
at Avignon, murdered sixty-one persons there on October 16th
and stowed their corpses away in one of the palace dungeons,
known as the ice-cellar. It is significant that these murderers
were supported on every side by the French democrats : the
bandits of Avignon were as useful to them in the revolution as
the Parisian pikes and National Guards.^
^ De la Gorge, I., 438, 457 seq., 467 seq., 483 seq. ; Scioux
183 seq.
^ Cf. W. Kreiten, Voltaire, Freiburg, 1878, 378.
* The Abbe Salamon had made heroic efforts to nullify the
resolution, even calling on Bamave (Richemont, 39). He
received instructions to present to the king and queen of France
the protest which had been addressed to all the European powers
on October 26, 1791. Richemont, 78 ; ibid., 151 and 160, the
carrying out of this instruction.
* Gendry, II., 177 seq.
* Sybel's opinion (I.*, 353). In March, 1792, the National
Assembly decided to grant an amnesty for all crimes committed
in Avignon and the Venaissin before November 8, 1791. For the
vandalism at Avignon see A. Hallays, Avignon, Paris, 1909, 99
THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY I9I
The situation of the CathoHcs took another turn for the
worse on October 1st, 1791, when the Constituent Assembly-
was followed by the Legislative Assembly. Most of the 750
members were not more than thirty years of age and were so
impecunious as to give rise to the joke among the Parisians
that their total baggage consisted of no more than an umbrella
and a pair of galoshes. But the gentlemen made up for this by
their loquacity. The fate of France was to be decided by 450
advocates and twenty-six State clerics, ten of whom had been
rewarded with bishoprics. This majority, in which blood-
thirsty Jacobins such as Robespierre, Danton, and Marat
were prominent, were for a republic and the growth of free
thought. The last rights that still remained to the Catholics
were now taken away from them. Already on October 7th,
1791, a deputy was complaining about the non-juring priests,
who were drawing large congregations, while the Constitutional
ones were avoided or even assaulted. Two days later the
Assembly was presented with a report by Gensonne on the
opposition that was being offered to the Constitutional priests
by the loyally Catholic population in the Vendee. So bitter
was it, it was stated, that it was to be feared that if the two
Churches were allowed to exist together it would come to a
civil war.^
The National Assembly began its deliberations on the
matter on October 21st, 1791. So great was its perplexity and
confusion that no fewer than twenty-one different motions
were put forw^ard. Only a few drew attention to the mistake
made by the Assembly in imposing the oath on the priests.
Erastian ideas had taken so firm a hold of the Assembly that it
occurred to only a few isolated members that the confusion
and the threat of civil war might be dispelled by putting into
practice the principle of the Constitution which promised
freedom of religious worship. The deputy Lejosne roundly
seq. ; Steinmann, Die Zersiorung der Grahdenkmdler der Pdpste in
Avignon, in the Monaishefien fUr Kunstwiss., XI. (1918). Cf.
DuHAMEL, Documents sur la reunion d' Avignon et du Venaissin
d la France, Paris, 189 1-3.
1 De la Gorge, II., 9 seqq.
192 HISTORY OF THE POPES
accused the loyal priests of being either charlatans or fanatics
and disturbers of the peace. The most extravagant language
was used by Fauchet, the Constitutional Bishop of Calvados,
who went so far as to say that, compared with the non-juring
priests, atheists were angels. Fauchet, who two years later
was guillotined by these ungrateful " angels ", finally moved
that all disobedient clerics be deprived of their stipends and
that those who provoked disturbances be sent to the galleys
for five years. The warning uttered by another Constitutional
Bishop, Torne, against the punishment of opinions and the
crippling of toleration, went unheeded. Fauchet insisted that
to tolerate poison was to be guilty of the greatest sin of
intolerance against society. Even Gensonne reminded the
Assembly that after the Constitution had granted men the
right to elect their own parish priests, it was hardly fitting to
force them to accept clerics they detested. But his words had
no effect. The Girondin Isnard, who had made a fortune by the
sale of perfumes, declared that everything must be subjected to
the will of the nation : tiaras, diadems, and censers must bow
before the sceptre of the law. The safest weapon to use against
the priests who disturbed the peace under the cloak of religion
was banishment.^
The result of this debate was a fresh law of proscription,
passed on November 29th, 1791, by which priests who had
refused the oath and had already been deposed were to be
deprived of their pensions if they did not take the oath within
a week. Further, they were to be placed under special super-
vision as being suspected of rebellion and, if disturbances
broke out on account of the religious question, they would be
expelled from their place of residence. If they refused to obey
they would be liable to a year's imprisonment. Clerics con-
victed of inciting others to rebel against the law or con-
stitutional authority would be punished by two years'
1 SciouT, 231 seqq. ; De la Gorge, II., 17 seqq., 24 seqq.
Fauchet's speech is in Buchez et Roux, Hist, parlem., XII.,
97 seqq. ; Gcnsonne's, ibid., 104 seq., Tome's, 123 seq., Isnard's,
133 seq.
THE PROSCRIPTION OF THE CHURCH IN FRANCE I93
imprisonment. This was followed by two regulations which in
effect were tantamount to the proscription of the Church, the
priests, and all believers. One forbade non-juring priests to
conduct services in parish churches, the other deprived
Catholics of the right to hire or buy churches unless they took
the civil oath.^ The term " civil oath " was purposely chosen
to give the impression that it was an oath of allegiance to the
order of things that had been fixed by law for the public safety,
whereas, in fact, it included the Civil Constitution. ^ The Abbe
Salamon perceived at once the perfidious nature of the
regulation and the danger that many would be deceived and
be induced both by the deceptive wording and the harsh
penalties for refusal to come to the decision that if needs must
they could take the oath. Accordingly, he did all he could to
have the matter clarified and to prevent the clergy acquiescing.
He discussed the question with the Bishops and with theolo-
gians and got the Sorbonne to consider it. Both the Sorbonne
and the committee of Bishop-deputies declared quite definitely
that in this form, too, the oath could not be taken. It was
then, also at Salamon's instigation, that several vicars-
general sent circular letters to the clergy, warning them
against the taking of the oath.^ Further, he had great hopes
of the king's refusing to sanction this new law, which made
Catholic worship quite impossible. This time Louis XVI. did
not belie the hopes that had been placed in him ; he declined
to give his sanction to the fatal resolution. But although the
suspensive veto was still allowed him by the new constitution
of September, 1791, it was now most violently contested by the
Jacobins, likewise the declaration of the members of the
administration of the Paris Departement, who still had enough
good sense to address a memorial to the king, protesting in
the name of freedom against the new law.* The Jacobins
1 BucHEZ ET Roux, XII., 150 seqq. ; Hist.-pol. Blatter, CXXIII.,
858 seq.
" SciouT, 241.
^ RiCHEMONT, 163 seq., 171 seqq.
* BucHEZ ET Roux, XII., 233 seqq.
194 HISTORY OF THE POPES
declared this to be high treason.^ Their battle-cry was the
suppression of all who thought differently from themselves,
the overthrow of the throne, the subjugation of the Catholics
within the realm, and war outside it. The National Assembly
acted entirely on these lines. On April 6th, 1792, a Good
Friday, on which there were performances at the Paris
theatres — a thing unheard of — the National Assembly, on the
motion of the Constitutional Bishop Torne, forbade the
wearing of religious dress or emblems. The Constitutional
Bishop Fauchet of Calvados, with instant obedience, put his
calotte in his pocket, and his colleague, Gay -Vernon, Bishop of
Haute-Vienne, laid his gold cross on the table of the house.^
On the same day Salamon, as private agent of the Holy See,
received two Briefs, dated March 19th, 1792, which had been
composed by the Pope himself. The first, after commending
the loyal Bishops, gave a final warning to the Constitutional
clergy and threatened them with excommunication if they did
not repent within 120 days.^ The second Brief imparted
extraordinary powers to the lawful Bishops for the spiritual
affairs of their dioceses.^ As the Government kept a sharp
watch on all dispatches from Rome, Zelada, the Secretary of
State, had taken special precautions, which had been agreed
on with Salamon. Only a few copies of the Briefs were sent to
Salamon direct ; a larger number, including the decrees
destined for the Bishops, which were in a separate parcel with
an address supplied by Salamon, were sent to Girard, the
Papal agent in Lyons, who was to forward them to a certain
1 SciouT, 244.
2 De la Gorge, II., 141.
^ Theiner, I., 125 seqq. The Brief was decided on in a Congrega-
tion of Cardinal deputies on January 19, 1792. Masson, 524.
*RiCHEMONT, 331; Theiner, I., 139. Ibid., 1^2 seqq., the
accompanying Brief ; 149 seq., the extension of the faculties on
June 13, 1792 ; 168, the prolongation of the faculties on
December 10, 1792 ; 213, their further prolongation on
December 15, 1794. Cf. Bull. ConL. VI., 3, 2476, 2479, 2529,
2568, 2740, 2897 (prolongation of the faculties on December 10,
1795).
EXPULSION OF NON-JURING PRIESTS I95
De Blignieres in Paris, a loyal deputy from the Ardennes.
A parcel addressed to a deputy was delivered without question,
and Salamon thus received everything safely. He took
immediate steps to have the first Brief printed and distributed.
No little risk was attached to this, for by a decree of the
National Assembly every printer, colporteur, or distributor of
Papal Briefs was threatened with severe penalties. Within
twenty-four hours a large number of copies were printed and
by Easter Monday Salamon could report with great satisfac-
tion to Cardinal Zelada that already more than 20,000 copies
had been distributed in the capital and that everyone wanted
to have one.^ The Brief was distributed in the provinces too,
though not by the timid Bishop-deputies, as Salamon reported
with regret. Their committee was still in Paris, and was again
making difficulties, in anticipation of which the consignment
of Briefs had been sent to Salamon.^
On May 5th, 1792, the Calvinist Frangois Nantes reported to
the National Assembly that the number of non-juring priests
was between 15,000 and 20,000 and that the clergy still
existed as a separate Estate, with one foot in the Vatican and
the other on a great throne. The coercive measures employed
hitherto were inadequate ; to restore domestic peace to the
people the refractory clerics must be interned. This proposal
seemed too lenient to the " Mountain " and the Girondists ;
they demanded deportation. Accordingly on May 27th a law
was passed by which all non-juring priests were to be expelled
if denounced by twenty citizens and the expulsion was
requested by the district authorities concerned ; any priest
returning to the country after expulsion would be pimished
by ten years' imprisonment. This then was the penalty incurred
by any priest who still dared to conduct a Catholic service.^
The king made use of his right of veto for the second time.
1 Reports of April 9 and 16, 1792, in Richemont, ^82 seqq.,
393 seqq.
2 Ibid., 422 seq., 456 ; Kiefer, 92 seq.
' SciouT, 268 seqq. ; De la Gorge, II., 146 seq. ; the decree
in BucHEz ET Roux. XIV.. 248.
196 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Although his hfe had been threatened by the mob that had
forced its way into the Tuileries on June 20th, 1792, he
displayed a courageous firmness on this occasion.^ But no
more regard was paid to his right of veto than in the previous
year. In the all-prevailing anarchy the persecution of the
loyal clergy could pursue its course unhindered.^
Not only the altar but the throne, too, was subjected to
attack. Its enemies tried every means of completely
demolishing the monarchy, which had already been gravely
humiliated. On July 3rd Vergniaud made a great speech in
the National Assembly ; with masterly ingenuity he repre-
sented the king as an enemy of the country and spoke for the
first time of his deposition. Two days later Torne, the Con-
stitutional Bishop of Cher, made a formal request to this
effect. After that not a day passed without an attack being
made on the crown. ^ In the latter half of July non-juring
priests in several places, such as Limoges, Clairac, Marseilles,
and Bordeaux, were murdered.* The insurrection of
August 10th, 1792, resulted in the arrest of Louis XVI. and
his family. Having obtained this success the Jacobins and
Girondins renewed their attack on the Church more furiously
than ever. The revolutionary communal authorities in Paris
led the way,^ and the National Assembly obediently followed.
The female orders, which had hitherto been spared, were con-
demned to a speedy end by the decree of August 17th, which
ordered them to vacate their institutions before October 1st.
In the name of the free State, which could not tolerate any
corporation within its boundaries, a decree of August 18th
ordered the dissolution of all teaching and nursing
Congregations. The work of persecution was crowned by the
law of August 26th, by which time there was no need to fear
a veto, as the king was a prisoner in the Temple. This new law
1 De la Gorge, IL, 191 seq., 196 seq.
* Ibid., 202 seqq. ; Scioux, 277 seq.
* SciouT, 2^6 seq. ; Weiss, Weltgesch., XV. ■'-'*, Graz, 1900,
589 seq.
* SciouT, 279 seq. ; De la Gorge, II., 221 seq.
* F. Braesch, La Commune du dix aout 1792, Paris, 191 1.
THE SEPTEMBER MASSACRES I97
decreed that all priests who had not yet taken the oath in
accordance with the laws of November 27th, 1790, and
April 15th, 1791, or who, after having sworn, had recanted and
persisted in their refractoriness, were to leave their Departe-
ments within a week and French soil within a fortnight. Those
who would not obey would be taken to the penal colony of
Guiana in South America and if they returned to France they
would be imprisoned for ten years. This law could also be.
applied to any other priest in the country who stirred up
trouble or if a request for its application was made by the
citizens of a Departement. Those who were too old or sick to
be deported were to be interned together in one house. ^
The implementation of this new proscriptive law, the object
of which was to preclude any kind of Catholic service, was
forestalled by one of the most horrible events in French
history — the September massacres.
The main object for which they were carried out was to
influence the elections for the National Convention ; the
allegation that the country was threatened with a foreign war
was a mere blind. It is equally certain that plans for the
slaughter, including even the preparation of the victims'
graves, had been laid by scoundrels in the pay of the com-
munal council and by the minister of justice, Danton. The
butchery began at three o'clock in the afternoon of Sunday,
September 2nd, and lasted till the 7th.2 The accounts of the
atrocities left us by contemporaries make horrible reading ;
the Englishman Moore, who was living in Paris at the time,
wrote that these fearful deeds were worse than anything that
1 De la Gorge, II., 236 seq., 239 seq., 241 seq. ; Mathiez, Les
consequences religieuses de la journee de 10 aout 1792 : La deporta-
tion des pretres et la secularization de I'etat civil, Paris, 1911.
SciouT (288) calls attention to the inclusion of the clerics who had
taken the " serment de liberte et egalite " which had been decreed
on Augfust 14, 1792. Cf. below, p. 203.
2 Granier de Cassagnac, Hist, des Girondins et des massacres
de Septembre, vol. II. ; Mortimer-Ternaux, Hist, de la Terreur,
III.; Sybel, I.*, 515 seq.; Weiss, loc. cit., XVI., 126 seq.,
138 seq. ; SciouT, 290 seq. ; De la Gorge, II., 275 seqq.
igS HISTORY OF THE POPES
had been recorded in the history of crime.^ The number of the
victims was at least 1,400, of whom 225 were priests, apart
from those who were executed in the former Benedictine abbey
of St-Germain-des-Pres ; their number can no longer be
established.^ Not one of the priests would save his life by
taking the oath ; as one of the executioners exclaimed in
amazement, they went to their death as happily and joyfully
as though it were a wedding. At the Carmelite convent, where
the clerics destined for deportation had been interned, there
were put to death Louis XVI. 's confessor, Hebert, the learned
Jesuit Gagnieres, the Superior of the Eudists, Lefranc, the
Bishops of Saintes and Beauvais, Francois- Joseph de la
Rochefoucauld and his brother Pierre-Louis, and the eighty-
seven-year-old Archbishop of Aries, Jean-Marie Dulau.^
Among the few who escaped the butchery were the director
of the deaf and dumb institute, the Abbe Sicard, who had to
^ A Journal during a Residence in France (1793).
^ De la Gorge, IL, 285, 296. Len6tre {Massacres de
Septembre, Paris, 1907) estimates the number of the victims at
1,600 ; Webster (The French Revolution, London, 1919, 330)
gives a total of 1368 (43 nobles and officers, 245 priests, 1,080
ordinary people) .
3 They were beatified on October 17, 1926. A. Cortaggini,
I beaii Martiri del Settembre 1792 a Parigi, Isola del Liri, 1926 ;
J. Dehaut, Pretres victimes de la Revel, dans le dioc. de Cambrai
1792, Cambrai, 1909 ; Welschinger, Les Martyrs de Septembre,
Paris, 1919 ; Sorel, Le couvent des Carmes pendant la Terrcur,
125-145, 371 seqq. ; Mourret, VIL, 160 ; Leclercq, Les
Martyrs, XL, 40 seqq. ; Sabatie, Les massacres de Septembre, les
martyrs du clerge, Paris, 191 2 ; J. B. Rovolt, Les martyrs eudistes
massacres au Carmes et a St-Firmin 2 et ^ Septembre 1792, Paris,
1927 ; Fouqueray, Un groupe de martyrs de Septetnbre 1792,
23 anciens jesuites, Paris, 1927. On the question of the oath that
was demanded of the victims— a matter of importance so far as
their beatification was concerned — see (as opposed to Misermont,
Le serment a la Constitution civile du clerge, Paris, 191 7) Pisani's
observations in Polybiblion, LXXXIX. (1917). 2645^5'., and
L. AuDiAT, Deux victimes des septembriseurs (the two
Rochcfoucaulds), Paris, 1927.
THE ABBE SALAMON S ORDEAL I99
watch the murders in the abbey for two whole days/ and the
Pope's confidential agent, the Abbe Salamon, who has
described his ordeal in his memoirs. At two o'clock in the
morning of August 27th there was knocking at the door of his
house and five commissaries of his Section entered, followed
by twenty armed men. As they approached the Abbe's bed,
where he lay ill with a fever, he told them that he was sick and
asked them their business. " We don't want to disturb you,"
they replied, " but we know that you are the Pope's Minister.
Hand us over your correspondence." " Since you know I am
the Pope's Minister, you should also be aware that my person
is inviolate. You will have to look for my correspondence
yourselves." They then tried to force him to sign a statement
that they had been unable to find the correspondence. When
he refused to do this he was taken to the Hotel de Ville and
brought before the Watch Committee. " You're just a criminal
ripe for the guillotine," one of the councillors shouted at him.
" Is that the language of a people that's supposed to be free ? "
retorted Salamon, and he refused to answer the questions put
to him. He was then taken to the Mairie to be kept in pro-
visional custody, and on September 1st, at eleven o'clock at
night, he was transferred with some other prisoners to the
abbey. On September 2nd the warder rushed in shouting :
" Look lively, the people are breaking into the prisons and
have already begun to slaughter the prisoners ! " Distant
sounds of the raging mob could be heard in the prison, and
the captives prepared for death by making their confessions.
At about half-past eleven at night there was a violent
hammering on the door. Something had to be done quickly.
The prisoners, Salamon among them, jumped out of the
window into the yard fourteen feet below. But the mob
was already there, and an interrogation of the prisoners began
at once. The aged parish priest of Saint- Jean-en-Greve was the
first to be examined. " Have you taken the oath of obedience
to the Civil Constitution ? " " No, I have not." Hardly had
he answered when the stroke of a sword brought him to the
1 BucHEZ ET Roux, XVIII., 72 seqq.
200 HISTORY OF THE POPES
ground. With a few further strokes the gruesome deed was
done. Salamon had to stand by while his fellow-priests were
pitilessly slaughtered one after another. In silent prayer he
prepared himself for death. When his turn came dawn was
breaking. Summoning up his courage, he stood in front of the
deputy President, whom he knew already, and said to him :
" Before I am handed over to these misguided people allow
me to speak." " Well, who are you ? " "I was spiritual
counsellor to the Paris Parlement and I am a lawyer." " How
did you get here ? " Salamon gave him an explanation that
was partly true, partly invented. He had been arrested in the
street, he said, and taken from one prison to the other, but
this was the first time he had been questioned. Taking pity
on him, the President said : " You see, gentlemen, how care-
lessly citizens are arrested in the other Sections. If we had
taken this man prisoner he would have been examined and
released long ago." On hearing this, Salamon was bold enough
to exclaim : "I appeal to the National Assembly ! "
Whereupon the murderers exclaimed : "Oh, the deputies of
the National Assembly ! We've got a list of their names and
we'll strangle them along with the others ! " Salamon was
quick-witted enough to reply : " Yes, but I mean the
patriots — Herault, Torne, Rovere." " Bravo, bravo ! " they
all applauded. At the President's suggestion Salamon was
taken back to the prisoners' cell. In the evening he was brought
before a tribunal of five members, to which he related the true
story of his arrest. The President said he was wiUing to release
him, but that the killing was still going on, so that it would be
safer for him to spend the night in the prison. The next day,
therefore, he was able to leave, but before doing so he saw
from the window a member of the communal council, wearing
a tricoloured sash, deahng out money to the murderers. In
the hope of getting better paid, they were disputing among
themselves as to who had waded deepest in the blood.^
Outside France the view that was taken of the September
murders may be judged from the reception that was given to
1 Bridier, Salamon, 9-122.
EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. 201
the clerics who escaped the massacre. As the deportation of
the priests began at the same time, ah who crossed the frontier
were looked on as saved.
The chief object of the September murders, the securing of
votes for the National Convention, was attained. Over the
corpses of the victims this most dreadful of all the National
Assemblies proclaimed the Republic on September 21st, 1792.
Even in the Convention, of the 749 deputies forty-eight were
State priests, seventeen of them calling themselves Bishops.
It was their votes that turned the scale ^ in favour of the death
sentence pronounced on January 20th, 1793, on Hugues Capet,
as Louis XVI. was now called. The sentence was carried out
the next day, amid the joyful shouts of " Long live the
Republic ! " The noblest of the Bourbons mounted the
scaffold with a firm step and openly proclaimed that he was
innocent and that he forgave his enemies. Louis XVI. died as
a Catholic Christian, proving what he had asserted in his last
testament, that he wished to leave this world in communion
with the one true Church, He had never striven after unre-
stricted power, but revenge for the absolutism founded by
Richelieu was taken on him. The unhappy French people
now fell victim to the most terrible of all tyrannies, that of the
Revolution ; and to all the other calamities there was added
that of war, and not only the war with the Emperor and the
King of Prussia that had been going on since April, 1792, but
also war with England, Holland, and Spain. But this did not
hinder the continuation of the persecution of the Catholics.
In spite of the deportation law a number of clerics had
stayed on in France ; in addition, there were those who, as
non-functionaries, were excepted from the oath. Further, in
some of the Departements remote from Paris, especially in
Alsace, there were many parishes that refused to part with
their lawful pastors. Thus it was that the Catholic form of
worship still persisted, though under the constant threat of
extermination. 2 With its decrees of March 18th and April 23rd,
1 SciouT, Hist, de la Constit. civile, 310 seq.
2 De la Gorce, II., 321 seqq.
202 HISTORY OF THE POPES
1793, the Convention determined to put an end to this state of
things. Every priest condemned to deportation who still
showed himself in the country was to be put to death within
twenty- four hours of his conviction. Almost the same penalty
was to be paid by clerics who were non-functionaries.^ These
laws were carried out with inexorable strictness and, indeed,
with cruelty.^ Not content with raging against human beings,
the Jacobins also attacked ecclesiastical buildings with
incredible vandalism ; numerous works of art thus perished at
their hands. ^
Christianity had not been subjected to such merciless
persecution since the time of Diocletian. When finally there
was armed and organized resistance against this intolerable
tyranny it was supported by only isolated districts, the Vendee
and parts of Brittany, where in the spring of 1793 the people
rose in defence of God and the monarchy. But as this rising,
like the resistance shown against the Revolution in other
parts of France, was only of a local nature, it was found
possible to quell it by the end of 1793, in spite of the heroic
efforts of the Vendeans.* The insurgents, in their desperation,
may have tarnished their good cause by many an atrocity, but
the vengeance of the victors was quite inhuman. The sheer
delight in murdering defenceless persons taken by the " hellish
columns " of General Turreau and the Convention's com-
missary. Carrier, recalls the deeds of the Huns and the Mongols.
The massacres perpetrated by Carrier at Nantes are an
ineffaceable stain on the history of the Revolution ; in four
months he had 16,000 prisoners put on board ship, bound
together, and by the opening of a trap-door he let them drown
in the Loire. The first of these noyades, on November 7th,
1 Ibid., 324 seq. Cf. Sciout, III., 378.
- MouRRET, VII., 194.
3 Ibid. ; G. Gautherot, Le vandalisme jacobin, Paris, 1914-
* General descriptions by De la Gorge, II., 328-527, III.,
114-264. Cf. also Weiss, loc. cit., XVII., 96-118, 534-583 I
Deniau, Hist, de la guerre de Vendde, 3 vols.. Angers, 1906-8 ;
E. Gabory, La Rdvolution et la Vendee, I. (1789-1793), Paris,
1925-
THE NOYADES 203
1793, caused the deaths of ninety priests, who had been
imprisoned since 1792 and preferred to endure anything rather
than take the oath. At the second noyade, on December 10th,
the same fate befell fifty-eight priests who had been con-
demned to deportation to Cayenne. These atrocities having
been committed against the priests without reproof, they were
soon afterwards committed against a countless number of
laymen. At the same time shooting and guillotining went on
steadily.^ In Paris, too, the rasoir national (the " national
razor ") was in constant use. On October 16th, 1793, it cut
short the life of Marie Antoinette, the widow of Louis XVI.,
aunt of the last Emperor of the Germans and sister of two
other emperors. On October 31st thirty-two Girondins had to
mount the scaffold. Conforming priests were also among the
victims. " The Moor had done his duty and could go."
The illusions of the Constitutional clergy had already begun
to fade away in 1792. Some of the Bishops showed signs of
an uneasy conscience, but only one, Charrier de la Roche, the
Metropolitan of Rouen, had the courage to resign the see he had
usurped. There were others, however, who realized with horror
that they had walked into a trap.^ A year later it was already
possible to discern an intellectual cleavage : some threw in
their lot completely with the Revolution, others were still
trying to maintain Catholic regulations. The conflict of the
latter with the Convention began when it came forward as the
promoter of the marriage of the clergy. After several Constitu-
tional clerics had married at the end of 1791 and the beginning
of the following year,^ this step was taken by a Bishop, Thomas
Lindet, in November, 1792.^ In 1793 the number of Constitu-
tional clerics who married steadily increased. In Lyons, in
March of that year, one of these clerics married his sister, to
the disgust of the whole town. For this crime, it is true, he
^ SciouT, 441 seq. ; A. Lallie, Les Noyades de Nanies,^ Nantes,
1879; Sybel, II. *, ^zg seq. ; Weiss, XVII., 589; Carlyle,
French Revolution, II., 292, 298.
* De la Gorge, III., 14 seqq.
' Ibid., 44 seq. ; Berger, Religiose Kulte, 40.
* De la Gorge, III., 47.
204 HISTORY OF THE POPES
was arrested.^ In general, however, the marriage of priests
was encouraged. The easiest way to win the favour of the
Jacobins was to get married. On July 19th, 1793, the Con-
vention ruled that any Bishop who opposed the marriage of
the clergy was to be deported or deposed. On September 22nd
Pontard, the Bishop of the Department of the Dordogne,
presented his future wife to the Convention, which extended
its energetic protection to the now numerous clerics who were
entering into marriage.^
As many Catholic customs, especially the celebration of
Sundays and saints' days, were still being practised, the
Convention passed resolutions on October Gth and
November 24th to introduce a republican calendar in place of
the Christian one. Not only the whole constellation of the
saints but even the Lord's Day appointed by the Apostles
were swept away.^ The official abolition of Christianity —
dechristianization as it was called — had already taken place
in certain parishes in the autumn of 1793. It began in such
small places as Ris-Orangis, in the He de France, where a
school-teacher had induced the peasants to replace the statue
of St. Blaise in the church by one of Brutus, and to change the
name of the place to Bourg-Brutus. Similarly, the inhabitants
of Mennecy added " Marat " to the name of their village,
after they had dismissed their priest and had discarded the
statues of Saints Peter and Dionysius in their church in favour
of those of Marat and Lepeletier.* After that, to demonstrate
their abhorrence of superstition, they sent a deputation
dressed, as a joke, in choir dress, to the Convention, which
on November 6th declared that all citizens were entitled to
adopt whatever religious cult they pleased and to do away with
the ceremonies of which they disapproved.^ On the same day a
1 Berger, 46.
2 De la Gorge, III., 49 seq. ; Aulard, Le culte de la Raison et
de I' Eire Supreme, Paris, 1892, 21 seq. ; Berger, 46 seq.
3 De la Gorge, III., 59 seq. ; Weiss, XVIII., 705 seq. ;
Berger, 49 se^. ; Wallon, La Terreur, 11.^, Paris, 1881, 183.
* Aulard, loc. cit., 36 ; Berger, 51 seq.
s De la Gorge, III., 84 seq. ; Berger, 52.
THE DAY OF REASON 205
number of deputies prevailed upon the weakly Constitutional
Bishop of Paris, Gobel, whose debts had put him entirely
in the hands of the Jacobins, to resign his office. On
November 7th Gobel, with seven of his vicars, made a state-
ment to this effect in the presence of the Convention. The
radical deputy Chaumette promptly took advantage of the
occasion to propose that the day on which the declaration had
been made should be called the Day of Reason. This was
joyfully adopted by the Convention. Gobel, laying aside his
cross and ring and putting on the red bonnet of the Revolution,
was congratulated by the President on having climbed to the
heights of philosophy, and amid the cheers of the assembly
received from him the kiss of brotherhood.^ The deputies were
now seized by as great a frenzy of enthusiasm as on the night
in August, 1789.
Gobel's example was followed by all the deputies who had
taken Orders, including, of course, Thomas Lindet. The
Constitutional Bishop of Limoges, who had been one of the
men chiefly instrumental in bringing about the execution of
the king, said that he was glad to be a simple citizen and that
he had done with every kind of divine service. Another of
these mock Bishops declared that he would hold only the
dogmas that were in the great book of Nature and reason.
The Calvinist preacher JuHen of Toulouse, not wanting to be
outdone, praised philosophy and reminded his hearers that he
had always preached that the consistently virtuous man was
equally blessed, no matter whether he prayed to the God of
Geneva or the God of Rome, to the God of Mahomet or that
of Confucius. Gregoire, the learned and strictly moral Bishop
of Blois, was alone unmoved. The final words of his speech
were : "I shall remain a Bishop and appeal to the freedom of
worship." 2 But no one imitated his courageous stand.
As the Constitutional Church now began to break up, a
^ De la Gorge, III., 86 seqq. ; 88 seqq. ; Berger, 53 seq.
For J.-B. Gobel, who was guillotined on April 13, 1794, see Weiss,
XV'IIL, 93, and Steinhuber, II., 2-^0 seqq.
" Weiss, XVIII., 93 seqq. ; Pisani, II., 65 seq.
206 HISTORY OF THE POPES
republican, revolutionary religion — the cult of reason — was
set up as a substitute for Christianity. In this movement,
naturally, a leading part was taken by the radical communal
council of Paris. In the nave of the venerable cathedral of
Notre Dame a little " Temple of Philosophy " was erected,
with a decorated bust of Voltaire. Here, on the morning of
November 10th, 1793, a beautiful actress took up her position
and was revered by Republicans of both sexes. She repre-
sented Liberty, as was expressly indicated in the hymn
composed for the occasion : " Sacred Liberty, dwell in this
temple and be the goddess of the French." In the afternoon
those who had taken part in this pageant appeared in the
National Assembly, which immediately adopted the proposal
of the ex-Capuchin Chabot that the metropolitan church be
henceforward regarded as the Temple of Reason. Half of the
Assembly then repaired to this new temple, where the
blasphemous ceremony of the morning was repeated.^
In the days that followed Paris was like a madhouse in
which all the demons of hell had been let loose. One after
another Constitutional priests made their way into the
Assembly to lay down their office, and men dressed up in
ecclesiastical vestments made blasphemous declarations.
Deputies of the Paris sections offered up church utensils on
the altar of the fatherland. The Jews and Protestants also
delivered up their sacred vessels. ^
Really horrible scenes were enacted in the churches in
which the cult of Reason was practised. In this the three
main currents of French ' enlightened ' thought, especially
the pantheistic one, were prominent, particular attention
1 AuLARD, loc. cit., 50 seq. ; Buchez et Roux, XXX., 196 seq. ;
De la Gorge, III., 95 seqq. Pisani (II., 70) shows that the usually
accepted story of the actress being placed half-naked on the altar
is an exaggeration. Cf. also Brunot, Culte cath. enfrangais, in the
Annales de la Revolut. frang., II. (1925), 209 5^^. ; Hashagen,
Kultus der Vernunft, in the Neue kirchl. Zeitschrift (1905).
383 seqq., 428 seqq.
2 De la Gorge, III., 103 seqq. ; Berger, 58 seq.
THE CULT OF REASON 207
being paid to the ridicule of the Catholic religion.' In the
words of a member of the Convention : "In most cases the
tabernacle of the high altar was used as a footstool for the
throne of Reason. It was ministered to by artillerymen with
pipes in their mouths. The confused shouts of thousands of
people, the beating of drums, the shrill blasts of trumpets,
the thundering of organs, gave the onlookers the impression
of being among the bacchanals on the mountains of Thrace.
The people, suddenly torn away from the bonds of the State
and religion, had become a raving mob. Screaming the
' Carmagnole ', they danced before the altars practically
breechless, their necks and breasts bare, their stockings fallen
down. With their rapid twisting and turning they were like
whirlwinds, the harbingers of the storm that was to bring
destruction and terror everywhere. The wife of the bookseller
Momoro, a ranting Cordelier, the chantense Maillard, the
actress Candeille, these were the deities of Reason ; they were
borne round in triumph and were given almost divine honours,
to which they offered no objection. Great hangings had been
fixed in front of the side-chapels in the nave, not without an
ulterior motive, for sounds issued from these murky chambers
which attracted the inquisitive, and when they raised the side
of the curtain most indecent scenes were revealed to the
passers-by." ^ The church of St. Eustache was converted
into a common tavern, where shameless people caroused.
St. Gervais was taken over by the women of the Halles ; at
nightfall public prostitutes held a ball in the Lady Chapel.^
In the streets of Paris bands of Jacobins, " drunk with wine
and blood, on their way back from viewing the executions,"
formed processions, shouting " guillotine " and " rasoir
national ". In the Place du Carrousel a kind of pyramid was
erected in honour of Marat, with busts equalling in number
the heads he intended to strike off.*
^ Berger, 61 seq. ; De la Gorce, III., no seq.
^ L. S. Mercier, Le noiiveau Paris, IV., Paris, 1798, 139 seqq.
3 Ibid.
* Ibid., 145 seqq.
208 HISTORY OF THE POPES
The example set by the capital was followed by many other
towns, where the new cult was welcomed by both the educated
and the ignorant. ^ An English Protestant lady who was
Uving in France at the time gives us the following account :
" When the festival of Reason is to be celebrated in a Departe-
ment a delegate arrives some days in advance, accompanied
by a goddess (if the town itself cannot supply a suitable one).
She is attired in a Roman tunic of white satin, usually taken
from a theatrical wardrobe, and wears a red cap trimmed with
oak leaves. Her left arm rests on a plough, in her right hand
she holds a lance. Her foot is on a globe and around her are
mutilated symbols of feudalism. In this pose the goddess,
with all her paraphernalia, is borne along by four sansculottes
in red caps, and is escorted by the National Guard, the mayor,
the judges, and other officials, who, whether enraptured or
enraged, have to present an appearance of respect. The whole
retinue having arrived, the goddess is installed on an altar
especially erected for the purpose. From this position she
addresses the people, who in return pay her homage and sing
the ' Carmagnole ' and other songs of the kind. The procession
then enters the principal church, where the same ceremonies
are re-enacted in the choir. Wherever possible a priest is
procured to abjure his faith in public and to declare that
Christianity is nothing but a fraud. The festival ends with a
bonfire in which prayer-books, saints' images, confessionals,
and other pieces of church furniture are burnt. Most of those
present stand looking on in silence, struck dumb with horror
and amazement ; others, either drunk or paid for playing
these infamous antics, dance round the flames as though they
were half-crazy or with a savage delight." ^ It was in this
fashion that the glorious cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims,
Metz, and Strasbourg were desecrated. At Laon and Abbeville
the goddess of Reason was a harlot.^
On the whole, the witches' sabbath in the provinces was
^ Berger, 64 seqq.
2 Un sdjour en France de 1793 a 1795, Paris, 1872, 161.
' De la Gorge, III., 321 seq.
VANDALISM IN THE CHURCHES 209
even worse than in Paris. Though the greater part of the
population, especiall}^ in the Vendee, Lorraine, and Alsace, was
still true to the religion of its forefathers, it had to stand by
and watch how everything reminiscent of the religion of
Christ, even names, was stamped out. Naturally, the first
things to go were the crucifixes and statues of Our Lady. The
churches and chapels were cleared out to the very last corner,
and in spite of repeated prohibitions all the works of art
produced by a great past were destroyed. The empty churches
were then befouled outrageously ^ or were converted into
temples of Reason. In some places, such as Rochefort,
Grenoble, and Tours, the new cult took on an atheistic
character.^ One example will suffice to show the manner in
which the representatives of the people reported on their
activities. Le Carpentier wrote from St-Malo : " An obstinate
priest has just left here — head foremost — to join the others
who were dispatched {expedies) before him. The guillotine
has been set up permanently for the conspirators, the prisons
are full of people under suspicion, and Liberty smiles on the
patriots." ^ Voltaire's ideal, the throttling of the Infdme,
seems to have been fulfilled as well as the dream of the
Jansenists : the return to the age of the primitive church, the
time of the catacombs. But the church created by the Civil
Constitution was also at an end when the pseudo-bishops
who did not belong to the Convention followed the example of
their colleagues and resigned their office. A number of them,
including Torne and Jarente, married, and most of the Con-
stitutional parish priests did likewise. Whoevei: failed to do so
were kept under strict watch^. One of the chief originators of
the Civil Constitution, the Calvinist Barnave, was sentenced
to death on November 28th, 1793.
The enemies of the Church and Christianity were by no
means united. A formidable opponent of the new religion of
Reason arose in the person of Robespierre, who realizing the
^ Ibid., 324 seqq. ; Berger, 64 seq.
* Berger, 69.
3 Ibid., 78.
■• SciouT, 373 seq. ; Berger, 69.
210 HISTORY OF THE POPES
dangers, both internal and external, to which the Republic
was exposed by the disgraceful outrages that were being
comrhitted, now suddenly objected to the destruction of
Christianity. An ardent follower of Rousseau, Robespierre
was enthusiastically in favour of a " natural religion ", and
his dislike of the cult of reason and the atheism advocated by
Hebert, Chaumette, and Anacharsis Clootz was increased by
the fact that these individuals were his personal enemies.
On November 21st, 1793, in the club of the Jacobins, he
condemned atheism as being aristocratic and repeated
Voltaire's dictum : "If God did not exist, he would have to
be invented." On May 7th, 1794, after he had succeeded in
expelling Clootz from the Jacobin club and in bringing Hebert
and his adherents to the scaffold, he introduced his new State
religion. He expounded it in an endless speech in which he
effectively defended the belief in God and the immortality of
the soul, but denied that he had any dealings with fanatical
priests. At the same session the Convention passed the law
proposed by Robespierre, which acknowledged the immor-
tality of the soul and the existence of a Supreme Being, who
was to be honoured with thirty-six festivals in the year,
beginning with the 20th Prairial. A ceremony of this nature
was held accordingly on June 8th, 1794, in the Champ de
Mars and, in spite of its fhmsy theatricality and hoUowness,
it delighted the Parisians.^
Four days later the cowardly Convention passed the
horrible law which had been carefully worked out by
Robespierre and formed the climax of the Reign of Terror.
The frenzy of the Tribunal of the Revolution which began
now and lasted till the fall of Robespierre was indescribable.
When the head of this strange founder of a new religion fell
under the guillotine on July 28th, 1794, the cult of the Supreme
Being, which many had been unable to distinguish from the
cult of Reason, also disappeared.^ Robespierre had been the
1 Berger, Bo seqq. ; De la Gorge, III., 333 seq. Robespierre's
motives are well described also by Sybel (II.'', 440).
2 Berger, 89.
CATHOLIC MARTYRS IN FRANCE 211
moving spirit of the Reign of Terror, but the reaction was
slow to develop.^ The number of loyal Catholics who had to
mount the scaffold under his fearful regime was so great that
they were called " an army of martyrs ". Almost every town
supplied its contingent, those from Arras, Orange, and
Bordeaux being particularly numerous. ^ In many cases it is
difficult to determine the part played by political hatred, but
there is no doubt that many of the victims, especially priests
and nuns, shed their blood for the Faith.
The historian of the Popes has also to commemorate these
heroes, since they died for the Holy See. To name but a few,
the parish priest Noel Pinot, after secretly bringing spiritual
comfort to the faithful for a year, was seized on February 21st,
1794, just as he was about to say Mass and, still wearing his
vestments, was beheaded in the public square at Angers.^
Two months later the Vincentine nun Marguerite Rutan
had to mount the scaffold at Dax for refusing to take the oath
of loyalty to the Constitution.^ The four nursing sisters of
Arras, who were guillotined at Cambrai, were also martyrs.^
The female orders, which had been dissolved and broken up,
were especially prominent in the number of their members
who gave their lives for the Faith. Eleven Ursulines were
executed at Valenciennes,^ and thirty-two nuns at Orange in
1 Weiss, loc. cit., 568.
2 De la Gorge, III., 514; L. de Cherance, Nos martyrs
1789-1799, Paris, 1908 ; Audard, Actes des martyrs et des
confesseurs de la foi pendant la Revolution, 2 vols.. Tours, 192 1.
' De Segur et C. Sauve, Un admirable martyr sous la Terreur,
Paris, 1904 ; Leclercq, Les Martyrs, XII., i seqq. ; Uzureau,
Noel Pinot, Angers, 1912 ; Cortaggini, Vita del b. Natale Pinot,
MiJano, 1926.
* P. CosTE, Une victime de la Revolution, Sceur M. Rutan, Paris,
1904 ; Lexikon fUr Theologte und Kirche, I., 702.
^ MiSERMONT, Les ven. Filles de la Charitd d' Arras, dernieres
victimes de J. Lebon a Cambrai, Paris, 1914 ; Leclercq, loc. cit.,
XL, 491 seqq. ; A. Lovat, The Sisters of Charity martyred at
Arras in 1794, London, 1921.
* Le beate quindici Vergini-martiri Figlie delta caritct ed Orsoline
212 HISTORY OF THE POPES
July, 1794 (most of the latter were either Ursulines or members
of the Congregation of the Perpetual Adoration). The manner
of their deaths was so heroic that the onlookers declared that
only religion could be the source of such fortitude and
confidence.^ In the same month sixteen Carmelite nuns from
the convent at Compiegne went to the scaffold in Paris,
singing hymns. The Superior begged, as a favour, to be the
last to die.^
messe a morte nella dioc. di Cambrai, Giugno-Ottobre 1794, Roma,
1920.
1 Redon, Les 32 religieuses guillotinees a Orange en 1794,
Avignon, 1904, 105 ; Loridan, Les bienheureuses Ursulines de
Valenciennes, Paris, 1920.
2 A. SoREL, Les Carmelites de Compiegne, Avignon, 1878;
V. Pierre, Les bienheureuses Carmelites de Compiegne, Paris,
1906 ; Lexikon fur Theologie und Kirche, III., 23 ; P. Marie-
Am and de St. Joseph, Carmes et Carmelites martyrs de la Revolu-
tion, Paris, 1925; Leclercq, loc. cit., XII., 129 seq. Of those
cited the martyrs of-Compieghe were beatified on May 27, 1906 ;
those of Valenciennes and Arras on June 13, 1920 ; those of
Orange on May 10, 1925 ; and Pinot on October 31, 1926.
CHAPTER VI.
The Penetration of Revolutionary Ideas and
Movements into the States of the Church.
In the war waged by the French revolutionaries against the
Cathohc reUgion the Pope had very soon become an object of
attack, not only as the supreme head of the Church but also as
a temporal ruler. In the latter capacity Pius VI. was in a far
more dangerous situation than in the former, for notwith-
standing his Government's well-intentioned efforts at reform
the financial and military weakness of the Papal States was by
now deplorable.^ There was no question, therefore, of the
Pope's direct participation in the military undertakings of
other Powers against the Revolution ; the most that he could
hope for was to prevent the infiltration of subversive ideas
into his own dominions. For this purpose, precautionary
measures had been taken at the beginning of 1790, when
French newspapers were already prophesying that a revolution
like that of Paris would soon break out in Rome.^ The down-
fall of Pius VI. had also been foretold by the freemason and
reformer Cagliostro ^ after his arrival in Rome at the end
of May, 1789. This adventurer, who tried in Rome as in other
capitals to exploit the credulity and the love of the mysterious
that were rife at this period, was arrested during the night of
December 27th-28th, 1789, and was prosecuted by the
1 Cf. our account. Vol. XXXIX., 42 seqq., and below, pp. 225,
n. 5, 227, 246, n. 4.
" Serafino Figari's *report from Rome, of January 23, 1790
(State Archives, Genoa).
. » Pietro Donado's *report of June 6, 1789. He adds that those
who have seen Cagliostro are surprised that so much fuss is made
about him in Paris (State Archives, Venice). Bernis had the same
impression (see Corresp. des Direct., XV., 375).
213
214 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Inquisition.^ Simultaneously with his arrest the police dis-
covered that the students of the French Academy at Trinita
de' Monti had set up a masonic lodge in the house of the
painter Belle. Freemasonry having been forbidden in Rome
under pain of the heaviest penalties by Bulls of Clement XII.
and Benedict XIV., severe measures were taken. Belle, the
most deeply involved of the offenders, deemed it prudent to
disappear.^ Among Cagliostro's papers, it was said, was found
a prophecy that Pius VI. would lose his throne and be the
last of the Popes. The perturbation caused by these incidents
may be gathered from Cardinal Bernis' letters. He relates that
the students at the French academy of art having been infected
by masonic ideas, Menageot, their director, had the greatest
difficulty in keeping them to their studies and in restraining
them from reading free-thinking and irreligious works. The
people of Rome, added Bernis, had not yet been affected by
the false ideas, but they had spread among the artists and the
middle class, and were beginning to penetrate into higher
circles.^ How anxious were the authorities to forestall any
occasion for disturbances may be seen from some of the
measures taken in February, 1790. On the 5th of this month
the Moccoli festival, which was usually held on the last day of
the Carnival, and of which Goethe gives so attractive a des-
cription, was banned.* Of recent years it had deteriorated into
an orgy. On the feast of St. Peter's Chair, February 22nd,'
Frenchmen were not allowed to attend the Papal Mass in
St. Peter's in the space reserved for distinguished strangers,
owing to the most disrespectful conduct there of several of
1 Reports in Corresp. dcs Direct., XV., 275, 277 seq. Cf. Donado's
♦report of January 2 and 30 and February 6, 1790 (" La prigionia
del Cagliostro puo dirsi I'epoca di una insolita vigilanza "), loc. cit.,
and *Figari's of March 13, 1790 {loc. cit.).
2 Corresp. des Direct., XV., 374.
' Ibid., 377 seq.
*Figari's *rcports of January 23, February 6 and 20, 1790
{loc. cit.) ; also *Donad()'s of February 6, to which is attached
the edict of February 5, 1790 {loc. cit.). Cf. also the police report
in Corresp. des Direct., XV., 396 seq.
ANTI-REVOLUTIONARY MEASURES 215
their countrymen during the Christmas celebrations. Before
the month was out an ordinance was issued against the sale
of tricolour cockades. ^ Further incidents gave cause for
exercising even greater watchfulness. In March the legate of
Bologna had to take steps against the diffusion of revolu-
tionary announcements.^ In May a man was carried along the
Rione Regola in Rome, dressed up as the Pope and accepting
appeals and lampoons ; this resulted in some arrests.^ In
June the mob at Rignano, near Rome, opened the prisons ;
at Viterbo a tax edict was torn down * ; and in July there
were disturbances at Ferrara on account of the taxes. ^
On June 18th, 1790, the subversive tragedies of Alfieri, who
was living in Paris, were banned in Rome.^ Toward the end of
the month Bernis was reporting that the people of Rome were
beginning to eye the French residents with suspicion, as being
potential disturbers of the peace. ^ In July considerable alarm
was caused by the news from Paris that Mirabeau had made
a speech, which was being publicized by means of provocative
manifestoes, to the effect that the French revolution would
spread to every country in Europe. As this coincided with the
discovery of French emissaries in the States of the Church,
certain suspicious individuals were expelled.^ At the end of
^ Figari's *reports of January 23 and Februar>^ 13, 1790
{loc. cit.).
2 Figari's *report of March 20, 1790 {ibid.).
^ Figari's *report of May 29, 1790 (ibid.).
^ Figari's *report of June 26, 1790 (ibid.). On October 17 and
24, 1789, *Donado reported an attempt made by the criminals to
seize the fortress of Sinigaglia {loc. cit.).
5 Figari's *report of July 10, 1790 {loc. cit.).
« Donado on June 19, 1790 (State Archives, Venice) : " *Ieri
si sono proibite come sediziose le tragedie del conte Alfieri
accresciute di numero dopo la prima edizione e ristampate a
Parigi con alcune dediche assai sfrenate." Cf. Baumgartner,
Ital. Liter atur, 592 seqq.
' Corresp. des Direct., XV., 429.
* Donado's *report of July 31, 1790, with the observation
{loc. cit.) : " Una societa che s'unisce espressamente per rovesciar
tutta Europa, una nazionc che la genera, I'alimenta e I'incoraggisce
2l6 HISTORY OF THE POPES
September Bernis reported that the poKce were keeping a
strict watch on foreigners. The young artists especially were
under suspicion as they were nearly all freemasons. Three
Frenchmen regarded as suspicious characters had been
expelled. " Every sovereign," he observed, " is master in his
own house, and it is only natural that he should refuse to
tolerate those who stir up others against the government or
who despise rehgion." ^ In Januar}^ 1791, the authorities in
Rome were on the track of fresh emissaries of the National
Assembly.2 Another effect of the French Revolution was that
the Dataria and Penitentiary ceased to derive any money from
France ; this, in view of the precarious financial situation,
was a serious loss.^
The Inquisition's prosecution of Cagliostro ended in April,
1791, with his being condemned to death, but the sentence was
commuted by Pius VI. into lifelong imprisonment in the
fortress of S. Leone. The penalties imposed on the others
implicated in the case, of whom one was a Capuchin, were also
mitigated. The charlatan's masonic writings were burnt in the
Campo di Fiori.*
nel proprio seno come necessario ai suoi interessi sono oggetti che
da se solo possono occupare i pensieri d'ogni governo nello studio
d'allontanare le insidie esterne e togliere neH'interno I'occasioni
favorevoli alio sviluppo dei sensi venefici gettati daU'esempio e
ricaldati da discorsi detti scritti. Qui si continua un costante
esercizio di vigilanza." For the fortifications at the end of July,
1790, cf. Corresp. des Direct., XV., 438. On September 25, 1790,
Donado *reported on the prohibition of the importation of
" figure equivoche " from France [loc. ctt.).
^ Corresp. des Direct., XV., 457.
^ " *Non mancano anche in Roma d'emissari del la sudetta
assemblea," Brunati reported to Colloredo on January 22, 1791
(State Archives, Vienna).
^ Brunati's *report to Colloredo on February 12, 1791, ibid.
On January 31, 1791, Brunati *reported that the Christmas
gifts to the court prelates were getting smaller and smaller, owing
to the shortage of money {ibid.).
* Brunati's *reports of April 9, 1791 (ibid.), and of April 9
and 13, 1792 (where he dismisses Cagliostro as a mere charlatan),
)
THE COALITION OF THE GREAT POWERS 217
After dismissing Cardinal Bernis, its representative in Rome,
in March 1791, for having refused to take an unconditional
oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution, the French Govern-
ment tried to force the Pope to accept as his successor Count
Segur, who had taken the oath. The Pope, however, firmly
refused to agree to this proposal, whereupon the nuncio
Dugnani had to leave Paris on May 31st, leaving behind him
only his secretary Quarantotti. Similarly in Rome, Bernard,
Cardinal Bernis' former secretary, continued to function as an
unofficial charge d'affaires}
When a coalition of the Great Powers was formed against
France in support of Louis XVI., Pius VI. showed no inclina-
tion to join it.^ He was evidently waiting to see how it
succeeded.^ The Republic of Venice also remained neutral,
and possibly the Pope was of the same opinion as its repre-
sentative in Rome, that the new order of things in France,
being founded on false principles, would be overthrown by
a counter-revolution within the country itself.* These hopes
were heightened by the news that Louis had succeeded in
escaping from Paris, and great was the dismay when the
rumour proved to be ill-founded.^ It was, however, a con-
and *Donado's of April 9 and 16, 1791 {loc. cit.) ; Corresp. des
Direct., XVI., 18 seq., 23.
1 Brunati's *report to CoUoredo of June 4, 1791 {loc. cit.).
Cf. above, p. 186.
2 " *Gli affari di Roma con Francia sempre piii peggiorano
tanto nelle cose ecclesiastiche sicche nelle politiche," wrote
Capello on May 21, 1791, in reporting the burning of the Pope's
effigy (see above, p. 186). State Archives, Venice.
3 Capello 's *report of June 4, 1791 {ibid.).
* Capello 's *report of June 25, 1791 {ibid.).
* Capello 's *report of July 9, 1791 {ibid.). The news of
Louis XVI. 's successful escape, which spread from Turin through
the whole of Italy, misled Pius VI. into sending the king a message
of congratulation, dated July 6, 1791. It was described by Capello
in his *report of July 16 as a " capolavoro della latinita Romana "
{ibid. ; it is reproduced in ViccHi, Appx., 5 seqq.). Pacca, the
nuncio to Cologne, was to present it, as a " Nunzio estraordinario ",
to the king at Metz.
2l8 HISTORY OF THE POPES
solation to the Pope to know that the majority of the French
clergy were proving loyal to the Church ^ and that national
feeling in England was turning in favour of the Catholics.^
In Rome, where in May 1791 there were further expulsions
of suspicious Frenchmen,^ the anti-French feeling of the
people against supporters of the revolution was reaching a
pitch unparalled since the Sicilian Vespers.^ When Frenchmen
were stoned in the streets ^ the governor of the city, Rinuccini,
immediately expressed his regret to Bernard that the rabble
should have committed these excesses, and he promised to take
steps to prevent their recurrence.^ Other ugly incidents
occurred in other places in the Papal States. At Macerata,
at the end of June, thirty-one criminals broke out of prison
and after joining forces with Neapolitan fugitives they took
to highway-robbery.' Far more serious was the mutiny that
broke out at Civitavecchia on August 1st. Prisoners rowing
the Papal galleys rose in revolt, shouting " Long live liberty !
Long live the French National Assembly ! " It was not till
the commandant of the fortress threatened to shoot them
down that order was restored.^ In the same month there was
1 Figari's *report of July i6, 1791 (State Archives, Genoa);
Brunati's *reports of July 7 and 13, 1791 (State Archives, Vienna) ;
Capello's *report of July 16, 1791 (State Archives, Venice).
2 Capello's *report of July 2, 1791 [ibid.).
' Capello's *report of May 7, 1791 (ibid.).
* " *Per quanto i Francesi sino dalla famosa epoca del vespro
Siciliano, siano invisi alia nazione italiana, non mai piu che
attualmente in specie ai Romani." (Brunati to CoIIoredo, May 23,
1 79 1, loc. cit.)
* Cf. *Capello on July 16, 1791 {loc. cit.).
* Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 35.
'Capello's *report of July 2, 1791 [loc. cit.). On June 16.
1792 [ibid.), Capello *reported another plot to plunder Macerata,
which was frustrated at the last minute ; the report was used by
Brosch (II., 157).
« This incident, which was not mentioned by Guglielmotti
in his Gli iiltimi fatti delta squadra Romana (Roma, 1884), was
reported by Capello in his *dispatch of August 6, 1791 [loc. cit.),
THE FRENCH SEIZURE OF AVIGNON 219
another mutiny in the Cast el S. Angelo/ and disturbances
occurred at Velletri and Fano, at the latter place on account of
the bad bread.^
At the beginning of August, 1791, after the attacks on the
Church and the person of the Pope had increased in Paris,
Quarantotti, the auditor to the nunciature, also had to leave
his post. On September 14th the National Assembly decided
to unite Avignon with France.^ Further, Bernard, France's
unofficial representative, who was still in Rome, was ordered
to refrain from any dealings with the Papal government.'*
Some of the Cardinals proposed that an immediate and solemn
protest be made against the seizure of Avignon,^ but it was not
till October 26th that the Pope addressed a sharply-worded
communication to all the Powers.^
On November 19th, 1791, Antonio Capello, the Venetian
ambassador, wrote that in all the preceding centuries the Holy
See had ne\^er been in so critical a situation as it was then.
France had attacked it in both the ecclesiastical and political
spheres, and there was a danger of other sovereigns following
suit. Consequently, the formation of the coalition was viewed
and by *Ca,rdinal Herzan in his letter to Colloredo on August 3,
1791. According to the latter's *report of August 14, 1791,
another mutiny had to be put down in Civitavecchia. State
Archives, Vienna.
1 Brunati's *reports of August 17 and 20, 1791 {ibid.).
2 Brunati's *report of August 14, 1791 {ibid.), and *Capello's
of September 17, 1791 {loc. cit.). The latter describes how the
disturbances at Fano were composed by the moderation shown
by the Bishop there, which had the approval of the Pope.
* Cf. above, p. 190.
* Cf. *Capello on October 8, 1791 {loc. cit.).
^ Capello's *report of October 15, 1791 {ibid.).
" The Secretary of State's *Ietter and Azara's *letter of
October 26, 1791 (Archives of Simancas), are attached to Capello's
♦report of October 29, 1791 (State Archives, Vienna). A " chiro-
grafo " of Pius VI. 's of November 5, 1791, " ammette e approva
la protesta del commissario della Camera contro I'usurpazione
d'Avignone " (contemporary print).
220 HISTORY OF THE POPES
with satisfaction in Rome, but it seemed that this hope, too,
was to be frustrated. ^ The replies from most of the Powers to
the protest against the seizure of Avignon were depressing, for
they were really nothing more than pious hopes.^ As the result
of the strain he had undergone the Pope had already fallen ill
with a fever at the end of August, 1791,^ and in December he
was ill again. His distorted mouth gave rise to talk about an
apoplectic stroke, especially as this was hereditary in his
family.^ He refused to spare himself, however ; his father, he
said, had had the same trouble, and he had lived for another
eighteen years. He apphed himself to all his duties as before.
On December IGth, 1791, he granted the Abbe Maury, who
had arrived in Rome a short time before, an audience of three
1 Capello's *report of November 19, 1791 (State Archives,
Venice) .
* The Emperor regretted that he had not 100,000 men at his
disposal ; the King of Naples referred to his aUies ; the King of
Sardinia's reply was " *polita quanto ai modi, consona quanto alia
sostanza. Tutto \-iene non essendo che parole senza nemmeno
promessa di una interposizione . . . di buoni offizi " (Capello on
December 3, 1791, ibid.). The Spanish reply was contained in
Floridablanca's *instruction to Azara, dated November 15,
1 791 : " que en quanto este de parte de S.M. y le permitan las
circunstancias se interesara mui de rexar las satisfacciones de
S.S." (Archives of Simancas). No help could be expected from
Aranda, who succeeded Floridablanca on February 28, 1792,
since he was a Voltairian who had always been a firm supporter
of a Franco-Spanish alliance (Baumgartner, Gesch. Spaniens,
365 seq.).
' Brunati's *reports of August 31, 1791 [loc. cit.), and *Capello's
of September 3, i79i( loc. cit.). The latter *reported on
September 10 {ibid.) that the Pope had regained his health, but
on September 28 Brunati *reported {loc. cit.) that he looked very
ill, that he was dragging one of his feet, that his thigh was swollen,
and that he could hardly stand.
* Capello's *report of December 10, 1791, where he gives his
opinion that " e una paralisia che una volta o I'altra puo farsi
apoplessia " (State Archives, Venice) ; Brunati's *reports of
December 10 and 12, 1791 (State Archives, Vienna).
HOPES AND FEARS IN ROME 221
and a half hours. This was reported by the Venetian ambas-
sador Capello, who again expressed the view that a counter-
revolution would come about in France of its own accord.^
The Pope, who went through all the exhausting ecclesiastical
ceremonies of Christmas, ^ must have been still more hopeful of
an anti-French coalition when he heard of the good progress
that was being made in the negotiations for an Austro-
Prussian defensive alliance, which was concluded on
February 7th, 1792.^ The sudden death of the Emperor
Leopold II. on March 1st caused as much dismay in Rome as
in Vienna, though it was soon learnt that Francis II. would
adhere to his father's policy. It was also good to hear that
Francis insisted on the return of Avignon to the Pope.'*
The news of the assassination of King Gustavus III. of
Sweden, which arrived in Rome at the end of April, 1792,
1 Capello 's *reports of December 4 and 17, 1791 [loc. cit.).
* Capello's *report of December 31, 1791 {ibid. ; the Pope was
restored to health, " diminuto anco di molto il difetto della
bocca ").
3 Capello 's *reports of January 7 and 21, 1792 [ibid.). On
January 28 {ibid.) he *reported Catherine II. 's reply on the
subject of Avignon : " supera in pienezze quelle di tutte le altre
corti." The letter of thanks to Catherine II. (Pierling, V.,
ijo seq.) was criticized by many of the Cardinals, among other
reasons for its tone (the Czarina was described as " eroina del
secolo "). See Capello's *report of March 3, 1792 {ibid.). In her
reply the Queen of Portugal promised to make representations
through her envoy in Paris (Capello's *report of February 4,
1792, ibid.). On March 17, 1792, Capello *reported that the queen
had lost her reason {ibid.) : " E veramente par che la colera di
Dio siasi lanciata contro i sovrani."
* Capello's *reports of March 10, April 21, and May 12, 1792
{ibid.). Maury had come to Rome on December 6, 1791. and had
been nominated by the Pope Pronotary Apostolic and Arch-
bishop of Nicasa on April 17, 1792 (see Richemont, Corresp. de
Salamon, 159, 381). For his mission to Frankfurt, cf. above, p. 182.
PouLOULAT, Le card. Maury (Paris, 1855), 230 ; Rance-
BouRRAY, Maury e' Zelada en 1791 (Paris, 1898), 17, 42 seq. ;
Hergenrother, Maury, 54 seqq.
222 HISTORY OF THE POPES
greatly distressed the Pope,^ as Gustavus had been friendly to
the CathoHcs and an avowed enemy of the French Revolution,
for the overthrow of which he had been forming great plans.
As for the successful issue of the first war of the Coalition, the
Venetian ambassador had only very modest hopes from the
outset. He did not close his eyes to the probability that a
struggle with so mighty a nation would be long and hard, nor
to the dangers inherent in every coalition of different nations.
He was also aware that England was pursuing a selfish policy
and that there was no immediate prospect of Spain, Portugal,
or Sweden joining the Coalition. Finally, he pointed out that
the Polish crisis to which Russia was devoting its attention
threatened to separate Austria from Prussia.^
The Pope at this time was fully occupied with ensuring the
safety of the Papal States. He had discovered that the dis-
turbances that had taken place in Fano in August, 1791, had
been instigated by emissaries from the French National
Assembly,^ and a club on the French model had been brought
to light at Ferrara.* In consequence he ordered the expulsion
of further suspicious characters and had the control of pass-
ports made stricter still.^ Reports of the warlike preparations
of the French in Toulon gave rise to the fear that Civitavecchia
would be attacked. The further counter-measures ordered to
be taken for the protection of the coast, undet the direction of
the Tesoriere Ruffo, revealed straightaway the incapacity of
^ Capello's *report of April 28, 1792 {loc. cit.).
* Capello's *report of May 12 and 26, 1792 (ibid.). The
ambassador had already passed the following judgment on
England on September 17, 1791 : " *LTnghilterra, la sola
potenza cui giovi la rovina della Francia assai piu che la cosa
comune, mira il proprio interesse." The downfall of France, he
alleged, would greatly further England's trade. For Spain's
attitude see Baumgarten, 391.
* Cf. *Capello on February 4, 1792 {loc. cit.).
* Capello's report of February 18, 1792, in Brosch, II.,
193-
* Capello's *report of April 14, 1792 (State Archives, Venice ;
Corresp. des Direct., XV., 76, 88).
THE POLICING OF FOREIGNERS IN ROME 223
the Papal States to adopt any sort of military precautions.^
In July, 1792, the entry of Frenchmen into Papal territory
was made more difficult still, and a strict edict was issued about
the policing of foreigners, on the supposed discovery of a French
plot to assassinate the Pope (who had now fully recovered his
health). 2 Pius VI., who hitherto had refused to have any pre-
cautions taken for his personal safety, now gave instructions
for them to be put into effect.^ In August prayers were offered
and processions held for the security of the throne and altar
in France.*
In Rome as elsewhere the news of the fall of the French
monarchy and the September massacre caused widespread
indignation and dismay. It coincided with the arrival at
Civitavecchia of the first of the nuns expelled from France.^
In view of the persistent and extreme hostility of the people
1 Capello's *reports of June 2 and 9 and July 28, 1792. He
states in his report of June 9 : " Questa corte continua in alcune
disposizioni di difesa piu d'apparenza che di realita e senza altro
effetto che di una spesa inutile." He wrote on June 23 : " tutte
queste precauzioni o sono insufficienti dato che vengano i Francesi
o se non vengono sono gettate " (loc. cit.). See also *Figari on
June 9, 1792 (State Archives, Genoa) and *Brunati on June 23
and July 7, 1792 (State Archives, Vienna). Full accounts of
Ruffo's military measures are contained in Azara's *letters of
June 13 and July 4, 1792. He says here that " Rufo goza del mas
decidido ascendiente sobre su [the Pope's] anima " (Archives of
Simancas).
2 See Capello's *report of July 9, 1792 [loc. cit.) and Azara's
*letter of June 13, 1792 (Archives of Simancas), where he writes
that the Pope went through the Corpus Christi procession " no
obstante el valor y fatiga que debio sufrir en una funcion tan larga
no ha tenido ninguna mala resulta ".
^ Capello's reports of July 14 and 21, 1792, and that of July 28,
referring to the policing of foreigners, in Brosch, II., 184.
■• Capello's *reports of August 11 and 18, 1792 (State Archives,
Venice), and *Figari's of August 11 and 25, 1792 (State Archives,
Genoa).
* Capello's *reports of August 25 and September 22, 1792
[loc. cit.), and Figari's *letters of September i and 22 {loc. cit.).
224 HISTORY OF THE POPES
towards the French ^ the Papal Government was at pains to
prevent any possible outrage. W'hen the Swdss Guard, in
revenge for the murder of three of their countrymen, were
about to attack the French academy of art in the Palazzo
Mancini, on the Corso, they were restrained by the Cardinal
Secretary of State.- Rome's anxiety not to compromise itself
was shown by its attitude towards Piedmont's appeal for help
against the threatened attack of the French. Pius VI. was well
aware of the Piedmontese Government's unreliability ^ ; never-
theless, the question of affording it support was seriously con-
sidered. In response to an appeal from King Vittorio Amadeo,
brought by special courier, the Pope summoned an extra-
ordinary Congregation of Cardinals at the beginning of October."
It was resolved to invite all the Italian powers to support
Savoy, but it was declared impossible to render any financial
assistance.'*
So soon as October 8th news arrived that without declaring
war the French had marched into Savoy and had taken Nice.
The Savoyard envoy now demanded that Papal vessels be
sent immediately to protect the island of Sardinia ^ — in other
words, that the Pope should openly join in the war against the
French Republic. This was a strange request in any case, and
was stranger still considering that the reverses, especially the
1 The Romans' hatred of the French was indescribable,
according to *Brunati, who made this comment as early as
May 5, 1792 (State Archives, Vienna).
2 Figari's *report of September 15, 1792 {loc. cit.).
* Capello had *\vritten on May 19, 1792 : " La corte di Torino
teme la guerra piu che la desideri." Savoy, he said, had no money
{loc. cit.).
* Pius VI. 's *letter to the King of Sardinia, of October 2, 1792
(Cod. Vat. 9718, Vatican Library), and Azara's *report of
October 3, 1792 {loc. cit.). The Cardinals refused to touch the
Sixtine treasure (see Capello's report of October 6, 1792, in
Brosch, II., 181).
' Figari's *report of October 6, 1792 {loc. cit.) and *Azara's of
October 10, 1792 {loc. cit.). The latter observes that the Con-
gregation consisted of Cardinals " di ordine e palatinos ".
THE POPE S ATTITUDE TOWARDS SAVOY 225
loss of Nice, were principally due to the cowardice of the
Savoyard troops. This aspect of the matter was given pro-
minence also at the Congregation of Cardinals, together with
the view that the Papal States had nothing to fear from the
French either by land or sea. The only danger that threatened,
it was held, came from within, not without ; the infiltration of
new ideas demanded most imperiously that Rome should see
to the safety of its own house. ^ The representatives of this
view could point to the French newspapers and pamphlets
that were eagerly read in Rome,^ to the spreading of revolu-
tionary ideas by the students at the French academy of art,^
and to the disturbing incidents that had occurred at Bologna
and other places in the Papal States."*
Besides this widespread disaffection and the utter
inadequacy of Ruffo's defence measures ^ the critical state of
1 Full *report by Azara on October 17, 1792 {loc. cit.).
* This had already been reported by *Brunati on July 7, 1792
(State Archives, Vienna).
3 The Belle case (see above, p. 214) seems to have been followed
by an interval of calm, but on August 25, 1790, the Director,
Menageot, was complaining of the " esprit de liberte et egalite "
of his students (see Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 441). On March 21,
1792, Bernard reported that the behaviour of some of the students
was so unrestrained that they were likely to be expelled {ibid.,
XVI., 73 seq.). This penalty was subsequently suffered by the
prophetess Labrousse {Mel. d'arch., XVII., 311 seq.). On March 28
a similar report was made by Menageot, who added that the
students had been warned to be more careful {Corresp. des Direct.,
XVI., 75 seq.). This brought him into conflict with the students,
who were filled with the new ideas, and at the end of October,
1792, the director, who was old and in bad health, asked to be
pensioned off {ibid., 119 seq.).
•• Brunati's *report of September 5, 1792 {loc. cit.) and
*Capello's of September 8, 1792 {loc. cit.). According to the
latter, the reports of the disturbances in Bologna had been
exaggerated.
^According to Brunati, *reporting on September 15, 1792, the
garrison of the Castel S. Angelo, 400 strong, consisted for the
most part of deserters and bad characters, and that in addition
VOL. XL. Q
226 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the finances caused the gravest anxiety. The increase of paper
money, to which the Papal Government had aheady had
recourse before 1789/ could only worsen the situation. By 1790
the notes, which had never before been issued for sums less
than 10 scudi, were representing half that amount. There was
no question of exchanging this paper money for hard cash, as
the Papal coins soon went out of circulation, having been
transferred to Milan, Genoa, Florence, and Naples. The evils
arising from this continual issuing of paper money were vividly
described by the Venetian ambassador Capello, who found
this method of raising money convenient but very dangerous. ^
The less the Papal States were able to rely on their own
strength, in spite of their costly mobihzation,^ the more
anxiously the eyes of Rome were turned towards the war of the
Coalition. From the very beginning the stout resistance of the
French and the unreliable attitude of the allies had aroused
serious misgivings.^ For two months hopes of the Coalition's
success alternated with fear of the French ; their fleet, under
Admiral La Touche-Treville, had been sent against Naples, and
it was feared that it would capture Civitavecchia.^ At the
there were 200 sentenced to hard labour {loc. cit.). This sounds
incredible, but it has been confirmed by others. A similar situa-
tion prevailed elsewhere. Cf. Brunati's *report of Dec. 15.
1 CJ. our account. Vol. XXXIV, 481.
* Capello 's *reports of September 11 and October 30, 1792
(State Archives, Venice).
' Figari's *report of November 3, 1792 (State Archives, Genoa).
On December 15 he reported that it was proposed to increase the
strength of the troops to 60,000, which would cost 5,760,000 scudi
a year {ibid.).
* Capello's *report of September 8, 1792 {loc. cit.). In a *Brief
of September 12, 1792, Pius VI. asked for assistance from the
Emperor Francis {Epist., 189, Papal Secret Archives).
^ *Letter to the nuncio in Madrid, October 10, 1792 (Nunziat. di
Spagna, 439, fo. iii seq. ; ibid.) : " Animati da questi progressi
[i Francesi] minacciano ancora, secondo le notizie che abbiamo,
la Sardegna e tutta ITtalia, e il carattere ardito della nazione, i
principj che I'hanno pervertita, la forza della squadra navale di
facinorosi di essa nazione, tutto ispira il piu fondato timore. Ma se
THE STATES OF THE CHURCH DEFENCELESS 227
beginning of November came the shattering news that the
supreme commander of the Coahtion forces, Karl Ferdinand of
Brnnswick, had abandoned French soil.^ In spite of the daily
deliberations of the Congregation of Cardinals ^ it was
terrifyingly clear that the States of the Church were
defenceless.^ " We have neither troops nor ships," wrote
Pius VI. to the Czarina on November 3rd, 1792, in the
endeavour to persuade her to send her vessels to the Mediter-
ranean.* Making war was not the business of priests, was the
judgment of the Venetian ambassador ; much money was
being spent on a defence that was more show than reahty. In
Civitavecchia, he continued, confusion reigned ; the best pro-
tection for the Papal States was the south-west wind {liheccio),
which made a landing impossible at that time of year.^
tutti i principi d 'Italia debbono temere la loro audacia, la Santa
Sede si vede ancor piu esposta al pcricolo di esserne assalita,
correndo voce che nutrano il disegno di tentate qualche sbarco
nel littorale pontificio nel Mediterraneo, e specialmente di portarsi
a Civitavecchia con isperanza di rendersene facilmente padroni."
1 Capello's *report of November 3, 1792 [loc. cit.).
'^ Capello's *report of October 23, 1792 {ibid.).
* On November 24, 1792, Brunati sent Colloredo a list showing
the distribution of all the Papal troops. Their total strength,
excluding recruits, was 8,860. As Brunati pointed out on
December 5, 1792, they were badly trained and undisciplined.
*Report of November 28, 1792 (State Archives, Vienna).
* *Brief to " Catharina imperatrix Russiae " {Epist., 189,
fo. 187, Papal Secret Archives).
^ *The defence measures were being taken " in fretta e senza
chi sappia dirigerli, la tattica militare non essendo la scienza de'
preti, onde spendesi molto denaro in una difesa piu apparente che
reale. Tutto essendo confusione a Civitavecchia, la maggior
difesa dello stato pontificio e il libeccio " (Capello, on November 3,
1792, loc. cit.). Cf. Brunati's opinion in his *letter of November 14,
1792 {loc. cit.) ; also Azara's *report of October 24, 1792 Archives
of Simancas) : " En esta semana ha prevalecido [?] el parecer de
los que quieren establecer un armamento y poner el estado en
un pie militar para lo que se dan todas aquellas disposiciones que
puede producir un pais que no sabe lo que es guerra, a quien falta
228 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Prayers were ordered to be said in Rome/ but the panic was
so great that many were preparing for flight. ^ Cardinal Herzan
and Brunati were among those who were thinking of departure.^
Amid the cares with which he was encompassed the Pope
retained unshaken his pious confidence in Providence.*
When asked what he would do if the French came to Rome he
gave the reply : " My post is at the door of St. Peter's." ^
It was not so much the depressing news of the victories of the
Republican armies on the Rhine and in Belgium, which
reached him in November, as the recognition by Naples of the
French Republic, that forced even him to change his attitude.^
It was firmly impressed upon him by his entourage, whose
influence grew as his age advanced,'' that the purely tem-
porizing attitude he had hitherto maintained towards the
French Government could not be persisted in without running
the gravest danger.^ Accordingly, he gave way. When Mackau,
the French envoy in Naples, protested to Cardinal Zelada
todo absolutamente y que ha puesto la direccion de esta empresa
en manos de uno que per su estado y per otras mil circunstancias
ignora hasta los primeros elementos de lo que hace."
1 Figari's *reports of November 3 and 10, 1792 (State Archives,
Genoa) .
2 Azara's *report of November 7, 1792 (loc. cit.).
2 Brunati's *report of November 10, 1792 {loc. cit.).
4 An *instruction of October 31, 1792, to the nuncio to Spain
contains the following passage : "In somma siamo circondati da
ogni parte di afflizioni ; ma dobbiamo adorare le disposizioni
divine e confidare nella sua bonta e misericordia " (Nunziat. di
Spagna, 439, fo. 115, loc. cit.).
^Capello *wrote on November 10, 1792: "II S. Padre piu
d'ogni altro si diporta con tranquillitae saviezza." On the 17th he
♦wrote : " Interrogate il S. Padre cosa fara se i Francesi vengono
a Roma, rispose con animo robusto e sereno che il suo posto sara
sulla porta della chiesa di S. Pietro " (State Archives, Venice).
Cf. *Brunati on November 17, 1792 {loc. cit.).
* Cf. *Brunati on November 24, 1792 {ibid.).
' This had already been stated by Brunati in his *report of
February 8, 1792 {ibid.).
* Brunati's *report of December 4, 1792 {ibid.).
BASSVILLE S ARRIVAL IN ROME 229
against the arrest on September 22nd of two French artists,
the sculptor Chinard and the painter Ratter, both being
charged with wearing the tricolour cockade and making a
statue of Liberty overpowering Fanaticism,^ the two men
were released.^ Another step of an accommodating nature
was the issue of an instruction to the commanders of the ports
in the Papal States to supply the French vessels with victuals
on payment.^
Meanwhile, Mackau's secretary, Hugon de Bassville, had
come to Rome, ostensibly to view the sights of the Eternal
City and to render thanks for the release of the two artists,
actually, as was soon suspected, on a very different errand.*
Some thought that through him the Republic intended to
open diplomatic relations with the Pope ^ ; others correctly
regarded him as a spy who had come to reconnoitre the
situation in the States of the Church.^ Bassville lodged in the
Via deirimpresa, with the French banker Morette. The Pope
gave orders that he was to be treated courteously but that his
movements were to be watched.' Although he had no right
to do so, Bassville immediately behaved as an accredited
representative and he entered into close relations with the
Spanish ambassador, Azara, whom he complimented on being
the only diplomat in Rome who " had risen almost to the
1 Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 105, 106 seq., 120, 122 seq., 124 seq.,
127 seq. That the Republicans' accounts of the treatment of the
two artists were exaggerated was confirmed by Bernard in his
report of November 8, 1792. His words were : " L'affaire de ces
artistes se trouve en justice reglee " {ibid., 132).
2 Ibid., 128 seq., 132 seq.
' Figari's *report of November 24, 1794 (State Archives, Genoa).
* Capello's *report of December i, 1792. Bassville, he said,
was " certamente non innocente ". He gave " elemosine quasi
sempre in oro ", which was suspicious. State Archives, Venice.
^ Brunati's *report of November 14, 1792 (State Archives,
Vienna) .
* Sforza, L'assassinio di Bassville, in the Arch. slor. ital.,
5th series (1889), 264 n.
' Brunati's *report of November 17, 1792 {loc. cit.).
230 HISTORY OF THE POPES
heights of our revolution ". " He is," he added, " a philosopher
and a friend of the arts, with none of the prejudices that might
reasonably be excused in a Spanish diplomat of twenty-six
years' standing." ^ The friendliness with which he was
received ^ emboldened Bassville to ask for the release of
suspicious Frenchmen, which request, owing to the fear of the
French fleet in the Mediterranean, was accorded him without
demur.^ Nervousness in Rome increased on the discovery of
signs of a revolutionary conspiracy. Suspicion fell on the Jews,
weapons having been found in their ghetto. In early December
arrests were made almost daily. ^ Meanwhile, General Caprara,
summoned for the purpose by the Pope, began his inspection
of the defence establishments in the Papal States.^ At the end
of November, to relieve the financial strain, the Pope had
decided to draw on the treasure in the Castel S. Angelo, which
had hitherto been anxiously guarded, though it had already
been seriously depleted.® To calm the Romans an announce-
ment was made by Cardinal Zelada on December 4th, 1792,
to the following effect. The Pope's intention was to remain at
peace with foreign powers and to preserve tranquillity within
his own realm. For this purpose he had taken precautionary
1 Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 153.
* Bassville's report [ibid., 144 seq. ; cf. 1^2 seq., iji seq.,
178 seq.).
3 Ibid., 148 seq., 169 seq., 171 seq., 178 seq., 184.
* Capello's *report of December i, 1792 {loc. cit.). Cf. Vicchi,
Ixxxvii.
^ Azara's *report of November 22, 1792 (Archives of Simancas),
and *CapeIlo's of November 24, 1792 {loc. cit.).
' The Pope's decision was reported by Azara to Aranda in his
♦letter of November 28, 1792 {loc. cit.). The withdrawal of
500,000 scudi was made with the prescribed formalities at
the beginning of December (see Theiner, Docum., I., 165 seq. ;
Azara's *report of December 4, 1792, loc. cit.). According to
Brunati's *letter of October 10, 1792, a well-informed Cardinal
had stated that there were not more than 800,000 scudi left in
the reserve fund established by Sixtus V. CJ. *Brunati on
December 12, 1792 {loc. cit.).
THE FRENCH FLEET AT NAPLES 23I
measures for the protection of the coast and harbours and had
levied troops for the maintenance of pubhc order. He was
making this announcement so that it might be generally known
that his intentions were directed solely towards the preserva-
tion of the peace and security of the Papal States. The idea of
his attacking anyone was quite absurd.^
In Paris other views prevailed. On October 24th, 1792,
Arena had written to his friend Brissot, the head of the diplo-
matic committee in the Convention, that Rome was a far
more dangerous enemy to the Republic than Prussia or Austria,
and that the opportunity must be taken of installing another
bishop in Rome and of starting a general revolt, for " we are
the masters of the Mediterranean ".^ It was soon made clear
that such views would continue to be held, notwithstanding the
Pope's accommodating attitude towards Bassville. On
December 7th the French fleet, under Admiral de la Touche-
Treville, entered the harbour of Naples, with the object of
enforcing the demands of the Executive Committee in Paris ;
if they were not complied with the town would be reduced to
a heap of ruins.^ On December 12th Bernard, who had
tendered his resignation as unofficial charge d'affaires as far
back as the autumn of 1791, received a letter from the Execu-
tive Committee of the French Republic, addressed to " The
Foreign Minister in Rome ". Bernard transmitted it
immediately through his son to the Cardinal Secretary of
State. It struck a threatening note : if the two artists (who,
it was supposed, were still under arrest) were not immediately
given their liberty, the Republic would take the law into its
own hands and proceed against the States of the Church with
fire and sword.*
^ Azara's *letter to Aranda of December 5, 1792, to which was
attached a printed copy of the " Notificazione " {loc. cit.).
2 Mortimer-Ternaux, Hist, de la Terreiir, V., 80 seq.
^ A. SiMiONi in the Arch. stor. Napol., XXXVII., go seqq.,
125 seqq.
^Azara's *report of December 12, 1792 {loc. cit.), and *Capello's
of December 15, 1792 (Archives of Simancas); Corresp. des Direct.,
XVI., 174 seq. ; ViccHi, 11 seqq.
232 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Enclosed in the letter to Zelada was another one, dated
November 23rd and directed to the Pope. It had been com-
posed by the Minister Roland's emotional wife, who was
particularly proud of this piece of work.^ The very address,
" To the Prince Bishop of Rome," which had been chosen by
the Executive Committee, was insulting. The contents were
far more outrageous. Firstly, in a torrent of phrases, a protest
was raised against the arrest of the two artists, whose only
crime had been their respect for the rights of man and their
patriotism. " The tottering power of the Inquisition," it
continued, " will come to an end as soon as it dares to give vent
to its rage, and the successor of St. Peter will lose his power
directly he allows this. Everywhere reason has lifted its mighty
voice, it has broken the sceptre of tyranny and the talisman
of monarchy. Now that ' Liberty ! ' has become the general
battle-cry, the thrones of princes are tottering ; they, too,
must salute Liberty if they want to avoid a violent fall. The
Repubhc, not content with the destruction of tyranny in
Europe, has the duty of preventing its activity everywhere
and of raising its protests in the name of justice, the arts,
reason, and the nation, which is breathing revenge." Further
on the Pope was thus apostrophized : " Pontiff of the Roman
Church, still ruler of a State that threatens to slip from your
hands, you can only preserve the State and the Church by a
disinterested profession of the evangehcal principles, which
breathe the purest democracy, the tenderest humanity, the
most complete equality — principles of which the successors of
Christ availed themselves to increase their power, which to-day
is collapsing through senile decay. The centuries of ignorance
are over, men can now be ruled only by conviction, led by
truth and bound together by their own good." After some
bombastic declamations about " the principles of the
Republic " the letter ended with the threat of reprisals if the
peaceful remonstrations were unsuccessful. ^
1 Madame de Roland, Memoires Paris, 1820); idem, ed.
H. A. Perroud, 2 vols. (Paris, 1905).
2 Corresp. des Direct., XVL, 160-2 ; Vicchi, ii seqq.
THE POPE INSULTED 233
Even Azara admitted that such a message had never been
sent to a sovereign before.^ Nevertheless, the Cardinal
Secretary of State, Zelada, replied pohtely but firmly that
such a letter could not be delivered to the Pope.^ The general
opinion was that with this outrageous insult the French
Government intended to bring about an open breach with the
Pope, as the two artists had already been set at liberty and
had taken their departure and the threatening letter had been
published in the French Press before it had been dispatched.^
To relieve the situation Zelada agreed to send Bernard a note,
dated December 19th, justifying in a calm and factual manner
the Pope's treatment of the two artists.* Bassville, too, in
spite of his suspicious behaviour,^ was treated, as before, with
the utmost consideration and his demands were met as far as
possible.^ But the tension lasted till December 20th, 1792,
when news came that the French fleet lying off Naples had
been scattered by a storm.'' Bassville, however, and his
intriguing and ambitious taskmaster, Mackau, paid no
attention to the altered situation ; they came forward with
further demands.
Bassville, who had been joined in Rome in December, 1792,
^ " *Dos cartas las mas extraordinarias que jamas se han
escrito a ningun soberano " (Azara's letter of December 12, 1792 ;
loc. cit.).
2 Bernard's report of December 12, 1792 {Corresp. des Direct.,
XVI., 184 5^^.).
* Capello's *report of December 15, 1792 [loc. cit.).
* French translation in Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 189 seq.
5 This had already attracted notice in late November, 1792
(Brunati's *report of the 28th). On December 29, Brunati gave
it as his *opinion that Bassville was trying to pick a quarrel,
which the Papal Government was anxious to avoid. State
Archives, Vienna.
* ViccHi, Appx., 13 seq. ; Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 194 ;
Brunati's *report of December 19, 1792 {loc. cit.).
' Figari's *report of December 15, 1792 (State Archives, Genoa).
As *reported by Brunati on December 29, 1792 {loc. cit.), the
Pope, with evident pleasure, imparted the news to his entourage
in the chapel, on the Thursday.
234 HISTORY OF THE POPES
by his \vife and little son, was on such intimate terms with the
revolutionary-minded students of the art academy, whose
patriotism, he reported to Roland, was as great as their talent,
that he was taken to task for neglecting the other Frenchmen.
He attempted to excuse himself by pointing out that he had
habitually invited all the French without distinction to his
republican Dejeuners, namely, to " a cup of tea ".^
Azara, who was on intimate terms with Bassville, had
already reported to Madrid on December 12th, 1792, that it was
intended to replace the royal lilies on the art academy and the
French post office by the cognizance of the new republic, the
figure of Liberty with the Phrygian cap — a gesture that would
cause more annoyance to the Papal Government than it had
done to the Neapolitan one.^ The idea arose with Mackau, who
was accredited only to the Neapolitan Court and had no more
of a mission in Rome than Bassville. The Minister of Marine
had ordered him to have the royal arms replaced by the
Repubhcan ones at the consulates in Rome, Civitavecchia, and
Ancona, if no opposition was offered there. ^ Mackau and
Bassville paid no heed to this proviso, but simply ordered the
French postmaster in Rome, Digne by name, to change the
arms. During the night of January lst-2nd, 1793, Digne
removed the royal arms and those of the Pope, but the
erection of the Republican emblem was prevented by Papal
soldiers both at the post office and the art academy.* Zelada
had brought this surprising demand to the consideration of the
Congregation of Cardinals ; of its seven members two had
replied in the affirmative, five in the negative. ^ The Pope and
public opinion in Rome were also for refusing. The reply of the
Cardinal Secretary of State, Zelada, was sent to Digne and
1 Corresp. des Direct., XVL, 172, 203.
2 * Azara to Aranda, December 12, 1792 (Archives of Simancas).
* Gendry, II., 224 seq.
« Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 205 ; Capello's *report of January 3,
1793 [loc. cit.). Cf. Brosch, II., 188.
« Capello's *report of January 5, 1793 {'l>id.), and *Figari's in
Sforza, L'assassinio di Bassville, 265 n.
DISPUTE ABOUT THE REPUBLICAN ARMS 235
Bassville on January 8th, and was communicated to all the
envoys. It referred to the excited state of popular feehng in
Rome and set forth the reasons why the Pope did not allow
the arms of the French Republic to be displayed. As the head
of the Catholic Church he could not, without violating his
most sacred obligations, recognize a Government that was
exerting all its power to detach France from the Holy See.
As the ruler of the States of the Church he must first demand
reparation for the wrong that had been done him, for the
burning of his portrait, the rape of Avignon and Venaissin, the
destruction of the Papal arms on the residence of the Papal
consul in Marseilles. Respect for armorial bearings was a
universally recognized obligation of honour, which the French
Government had been the first to violate. After the destruc-
tion of the Papal arms in Marseilles it was impossible for him to
allow the Republican ones to be set up in Rome. Moreover, in
December the residence of the Papal consul in Marseilles had
been searched, and although the release of the two French
artists had already taken place it had been demanded in an
improper, threatening letter, which had been brought to public
knowledge in the newspapers. In everyone's opinion, all these
affronts justified the Pope in his refusal to allow the display
under his very eyes in his own capital of the arms of a Republic
which refused to allow the Papal arms to be shown in France.^
Bassville, who now realized that the Papal Government had
hitherto restrained itself only from fear of the French fleet in
the Mediterranean,^ was apparently not unaffected by the
weight of these arguments, as he sent a courier to Paris to ask
1 ViccHi, Appx., 18 seq. ; Corvesp. des Direct., XVI., 20S scq.
Capello enclosed the note when *reporting to his Government on
January 12, 1793. He was not wholly in agreement with it and
presumed that its decisiveness was due to the courage which the
Pope had derived from the declarations made by the English. If
England, he concluded, dispatched its fleet in the spring, the
Pope had nothing to fear, but if it did not, " potrebbe forse pagar
caro un passo troppo affrettato ch'era meglio temporeggiare."
State Archives, Venice.
- Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 207.
236 HISTORY OF THE POPES
for fresh instructions. Meanwhile, however, he did all he could
to increase the excitement that was taking hold of the Romans.
At a banquet he gave for some influential Romans he toasted
the French Republic, and at the same moment a cake shaped
like a Phrygian cap was brought in ; this contained tricolour
cockades, which Bassville distributed among the guests.^
This incident naturally incensed the people, who were loyal to
the Pope, and mordant satires were written by way of retort. ^
Thereupon Bassville's friends had a sonnet posted up in
various places in the city, calling on the Romans to follow the
example of Brutus. ^ A contemporary tells us that Bassville
was behaving as though Rome had already become another
Paris. ^ Though he had no ofiicial status he corresponded with
the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the manner of an
ambassador and proposed to it on January 9th, 1793, that the
" beatified martyr ", as he called Pius VI., be brought to
submission by a severe castigation.^
Bassville, who was disappointed to find that Rome was not
a suitable place for his designs,® was outdone in audacity by
Mackau. On January 10th, 1793, he sent to Rome a naval
officer, of the name of La Flotte, with letters for the Secretary
of State and the consul Digne.' Digne was instructed to
display the Republican coat of arms without delay. He,
however, objected quite rightly that Mackau had no authority
to issue orders outside his own sphere of action, which was
^ Sforza, L'assassinio di Bassville, 264 ; Silvagni, I., 431.
2 Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 212 ; Vicchi, 17 seq.
^ Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 214.
* Sforza, loc. cit., 264.
* He suggested that : " On pourrait meme le mener a Paris
pour le jour des Rameaux, ce qui sans doute ferait rire I'ami
Prudhomme." The letter, cited by De la Gorge (IV., 354), is in
the Archives des affaires etrangeres in Paris.
* " *Bassville si mostra malcontento di non vedere secondati in
Roma i suoi disegni." Figari's report of January 12, 1793 ; State
Archives, Genoa.
^ Text in Masson, Les diplomates de la Revolution (Paris, 1882),
70 seqq. Cf. VicCHi, Appx., 19 seq.
BASSVILLE AND LA FLOTTE 237
Naples, and that in any case the order was in contradiction to
that of the Minister of Marine, which said that only a protest
was to be made if the display of the Republican arms was
disallowed. Mackau, he added, was unaware of the danger to
which he was exposing all his countrymen by provoking still
further popular feeling in a city in which the people clung to
their religious traditions, and in any case hated the French.
In these circumstances Digne thought it safer to wait until
the special courier brought back a reply from the Executive
Committee in Paris. But the hot-headed La Flotte refused to
hear of this. Disregarding all the warnings that had been given
him, he insisted that the national honour must be respected,
the Secretary of State intimidated by drastic action, and the
Pope compelled to withdraw his statement of March 8th. ^
Bassville having been won over to this way of thinking, they
both repaired to the Secretary of State, to whom they gained
admittance all the more easily as they assured him that they
wanted to express their gratitude for the release of the two
artists.^ The gratitude consisted in their giving the Papal
Government twenty-four hours in which to allow the display
of the Republican arms. If the Pope withheld his assent the
Republic would obtain satisfaction by sheer force. Zelada
replied by referring them to the unfavourable statement of
January 8th, but he undertook to draw the Pope's attention to
the matter for the second time and to give them a reply on
January 14th.3
The French threats became known immediately in Rome,
and it was also learnt that La Flotte, as well as Bassville,
was on the most friendly terms with the students of the
French academy. The latter, in their revolutionary ardour,
burned the statue of Louis XIV., the founder of the academy,
in the basement, and put up a statue of Brutus in the dining
hall. They also applied themselves with enthusiasm to the
making of a Republican coat of arms which was to be displayed
^Merimee's report in Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 237 ; cf. 219.
* Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 221.
^ Ibid., 221.
238 HISTORY OF THE POPES
in defiance of the Papal prohibition. ^ All these things must
have increased the fury of the Romans to such a point that it
was almost beyond control. In view of the excited state of
popular feeling, the Pope had already given orders at Christmas
to the military to take certain precautions, which had proved
to be effective.^ In consequence of the provocative behaviour
of the French academy and the threats of La Flotte and
Bassville he ordered special measures for the maintenance of
order to be taken on Sunday, January 13th ^ ; they failed,
however, to prevent the disaster resulting from Bassville's
allowing himself to be persuaded by La Flotte to participate
in another blatant act of provocation.^
^ Lapauze, Hist, de I'Academie de France, I., 447. Lapauze
points out quite rightly (p. 446) that the conflict was provoked by
Bassville and La Flotte.
^ Figari *reported on December 29, 1792 {loc. cit.), that there
was no disturbance on Christmas night, that " la citta era ben
guardata da soldatesche ripartite in piu luoghi per impedir ogni
disordine ", and that theatrical performances, even in private
houses, and masks were forbidden during the carnival.
^ Reports in, Sforza (loc. cit., 266). Cf. Figari's *Ietters of
January 5 and 12, 1793 [loc. cit.). In the latter he wrote : " Le
pattuglie non cessano di girare giorno e notte per tutta la citta "to
prevent any disorder " che I'astuzia francese potrebbe suscitare ".
* For many years French historians have been led astray by the
legendary account of Bassville's murder published by the
Momieur, which bristles with lies. Perfectly clear accounts are
given by Masson {loc. cit.). Cf. also Sforza {loc. cit.) and Vicchi,
Ixxxvii seqq. The latter, in his Appx. (pp. 25 seq.), gives two con-
temporary accounts and (pp. 27-9) Zelada's account, dated
January 16, 1793, which is also in Corresp. des Direct., XVI.,
220-6 ; the last-mentioned volume contains also Digne's report
(218 seq.). The account given by P. Vincenzo Fortini di
Serravezza, who was well informed, is in Sforza (263-9). See also
Capello's *report of January 14, 1793 {loc. cit.), and *Figari's of
January 19 {loc. cit.). For Vincenzo Monti's poem on the death of
Bassville, see Vicchi, V. Monti, Le lettere e la politica in Italia dal
1791 al 1793, Paris, 1893 ; id., Les Fran(ais, 88 seq., 104 seq.,
106 seq. ; Al. Schreiber, Friedrich Weinbrenner, Denkwurdig-
keiten aus seinem Leben (Heidelberg, 1929), 97 seqq.
BASSVILLE KILLED IN A RIOT 239
On this Sunday afternoon, accompanied by his wife, his
Httle son, La Flotte, a French friend called Amaury Duval,
and two servants, Bassville drove in an open carriage along the
Corso, which was crowded at this time of day, as though he
were heading a triumphal procession.^ All the occupants of
the carriage wore large tricolour cockades in their hats, and
one of them waved a tricolour silk flag. The crowd took
offence, an urchin threw a stone into the carriage, ^ it was soon
followed by others, and on all sides there were shouts of " Take
off those cockades ! " An altercation then ensued. La Flotte
and Bassville refusing to remove their Republican badges and
returning the Romans' insults with interest. The excitement
was increased by the firing of a shot, though no one was hit.
Threatened with the sticks and stones of the mob, the party,
on reaching the Piazza Colonna, finally realized its peril. At
the Palazzo Chigi the driver was told to drive through the
Vicolo dello Sdrucciolo to the neighbouring Palazzo Palombara,
the residence of the French banker Morette. The carriage,
however, was followed by the yelling mob, a part of which
forced its way into the palace. Here a scuffle took place and
Bassville was seriously wounded by a knife-thrust in the belly.^
Had it not been for the police, who hurried to the scene and
^ " *Come in aria di trionfo passeggiarono in carrozza per il
Corso " (Capello, loc. cit.).
* Cf. the " Relazione " of January 19, 1793, published by R. Paste
in the Arch. d. Soc. Vercellese di storia e d'avte, I. (1909), 133.
' Capello *reported on January 14, 1793, that after leaving his
carriage " Bassville venne alle mani e feri uno del popolo "
(State Archives, Venice). Zelada's official account also says
" il voulut se defendre avec un fer a la main at dans la melee il
blessa quoique leg^rement quelqu'un " [Corresp. des Direct.,
XVI., 223 seq.), which was denied by the other side. Bassville
himself told Dr. Flajani that he tried to take La Flotte 's pistol
away from him (Vicchi, Appx., 61). The report of January 16,
1793 (in ViccHi, 29), also says that La Flotte wanted to defend
himself and that Bassville hindered him, which the assailants
took to be a defence. The attempts made to find the man who
struck the blow met with no success. Corresp. des Direct., XVI.,
225 seq.
240 HISTORY OF THE POPES
took him to their guard-room in the Via Frattina, he would
have been done to death on the spot. As it was, he received
further injuries from stones that were thrown at him as he was
being carried away. In the guard-room he was attended to by
Dr. Bussan and later by the Pope's physician, Flajani, who
had been sent at once by the Pope himself. But two days later,
in spite of every medical attention, Bassville succumbed to his
injuries.^ He had asked for the Last Sacraments, which were
administered to him by the parish priest of San Lorenzo in
Lucina, after his recantation of the oath of loyalty to the Civil
Constitution. He told Flajani that he owed his death to
La Flotte, since had he not appeared on the scene nothing
would have happened.^ A fitting burial for Bassville was
provided by the Pope at San Lorenzo in Lucina.^ La Flotte
had left his friend in the lurch and seen to the safety of his own
person by escaping through a window into a neighbouring
house. He, with Bassville's wife and son, owed his life to the
Pope, who had a carriage and an escort of sixty men waiting
outside the gate. It was by this means that they got safely
away to Naples.^
The infuriated populace had attacked not only the Palazzo
^ Dr. Bussan's report of January 25, 1793, in Vicchi, Appx.,
46 seq., which also contains the " Relazione " of Dr. Giuseppe
Flajani (pp. 61 seq.) and Bussan's reply, dated Florence, April i,
1793 (pp. 75 seq.). The two doctors disputed with each other as
to whose unskilful treatment was the cause of the death. In any
case the Pope was not responsible, as he did all he could to save
Bassville's life. The doctor said in his report : The Pope " mi
ordino di prestargli tutta la assistenza, di visitarlo spesso e di
ordinare a suo nome tutto cio che credevo necessario e che potea
contribuire alia sua guarigione ". In confining himself to Bussan's
report and saying nothing about the dispatch of the Papal
physician, Brosch (II., 189) was giving a purely partisan account.
^ Vicchi, Appx., 61 seq. Bassville had to recant because he was
a secularized deacon [ibid., 26 seq.) ; Gendry, II., 184, n. 2.
^ Gendry (II., 232), who reproduces the entry in the registry of
deaths kept at S. Lorenzo in Lucina.
* Figari's *report of January 19, 1793 (State Archives, Genoa) ;
Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 225. In his *report of the same date
ANTI-FRENCH AND ANTI-JEWISH RIOTS 24I
Palombara but also the French post office, the academy of art,
where they set fire to the front door, and the houses occupied
by such Francophils as the banker Torlonia. In every case the
windows were smashed and attempts were made to set fire to
the houses, but these acts of vengeance were averted by the
personal intervention of Senator Rezzonico and General
Caprara. During the night the whole city was astir ; in every
street there were cries of " Long live the Catholic religion !
Long live the Pope ! " All carriages were stopped and their
occupants were made to join in the cheering.^ " The revolu-
tion that was to be started in Rome has misfired," wrote the
Venetian ambassador Capello at the end of his report of
January 14th, 1793. " There were no supporters of it
anywhere." ^
The next day the anger of the people, the Trasteverini in
particular, turned against the Jews. For months past there
had been talk in Rome about these detested ahens supplying
the French with money, making tricolour cockades for them,
and being in league with them for the purpose of bringing
about a revolution. What was far more serious and, for the
Jews, more dangerous, was the resentment of the traders, who
saw that their interests were being gravely injured by the
Jews' disregard for the commercial laws.^ Accordingly, a plot
was hatched to take a fearful vengeance on them. Fortunately,
however, the ghetto, which the mob, including some elements
intent on booty, proposed to set on fire, was protected by
Papal troops.*
Herzan stresses that La Flotte owed his escape to the Popes'
magnanimity (State Archives, Vienna).
^ Capello 's *report of January 14, 1793 {loc. cit.), and *Figari's
of January 19, 1793 [loc. cit.).
^ " *La rivoluzione che vedevasi di operar in Roma e affatto
mancata senza che siasi manifestato alcun partito per essa "
(Figari's report, ibid.). Herzan also emphasized in his *report of
January 19, 1793, that the riot was due not to insubordination
but to loyalty to the ruler and respect for religion [loc. cit.).
* Letter in Sforz.\ {loc. cit., 268).
* Figari's *report of January 19, 1793 {loc. cit.).
242 HISTORY OF THE POPES
In other directions, too, the authorities succeeded in pre-
venting further disorders. Most of the French had already fled
from Rome, and those that remained were afforded protection
at the Pope's command. The parish priests were asked to
pacify the people, the excesses already committed were con-
demned in an edict of January 16th, and by another edict of
the 17th the Jews were placed under the same restrictions as
those ordained by the Bull of Paul TV.^
By January 15th order had been restored in Rome,^ and the
city gradually resumed its former tenor. Vigilance, however,
had still to be exercised, as the people's anger had not yet
entirely subsided.^ Further precautionary measures were
taken by the Pope, including some for the protection of his
own person.* By a full and calmly- worded report issued on
January 16th and communicated to all the envoys,^ he hoped
to forestall a distorted account of the regrettable events.
Mackau's forceful method of procedure had been disapproved
of not only by Digne but also by Bernard and even by some of
the students at the art academy.^ Nor did it conform with the
plans of the Executive Committee in Paris, where Madame
Roland no longer set the tone. Not yet informed of the riot of
1 *Ihid. and Capello's *report of the same day {loc. cit.). There
is nothing here about the ghetto being " stormed and partially
plundered ", as stated by Brosch (II., 189), who ,was evidently
repeating the words used by the contemporary Avriter A. Verri
in his Vicende memorabili del 1789-1802 (Milano, 1858), I.,
133 seqq. : " Diedero un fiero assalto al Ghetto." Digne took
care to say in his report that the ghetto was protected by the
troops {Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 219). Cf. the account in
ViccHi, Appx., 42 seq.
2 Digne's report {loc. cit., 220).
3 " *In somma vi e quel mare grosso che resta dopo la burrasca,"
wrote Capello in January 26, 1793 {loc. cit.). Cf. Figari's report of
the same day {loc. cit.).
^Capello's *report of January 26, 1793 {loc. cit.).
^Capello's *report of January 19, 1793 {ibid.), and Herzan's
♦letter of the same day {loc. cit.).
* Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 227, 228, 238.
BASSVILLE A REPUBLICAN MARTYR 243
January 13th, Lebrun, on the 23rd, had written to Bassville,
strongly disapproving of his action in the matter of the coat of
arms. Custom and prudence demanded, he wrote, that
Bassville should first have come to an understanding with the
College of Cardinals, so as not to jeopardize the dignity of the
nation and the safety of the French in Rome. To the Pope,
who had not formally recognized the Republic, it must have
seemed an extraordinary procedure to replace the roj^al arms
by the RepubUcan ones in that abrupt manner. Bassville was
ordered to return to Naples, and someone else would be
appointed to conduct diplomatic relations.^
This task had already been entrusted by the Executive
Committee on January 19th to Cacault, secretary to Baron
Talleyrand in Naples, and on the 30th he received the definite
instruction to inform the Cardinal Secretary of State that the
Executive Committee disapproved of all the steps taken on
their own authority by Bassville and Digne as being unseemly
and improper, and it asked that these steps and all their
consequences should be forgotten. ^
But before Cacault could undertake his new appoint-
ment in Rome ^ a sudden volte-face took place in Paris. The
living Bassville had been completely disavowed ; but now that
he was dead he was declared to be without question a martyr
of the Republic. The conspiracy of the king's priests must be
avenged by the destruction of Rome ; the time had come for
this city to disappear from the face of the world, which it had
oppressed so long.^ On February 2nd, 1793, on the strength of
wholly partisan reports, the National Convention passed the
following resolution. Whereas the fearful crimes committed
against the person of Bassville and the destruction and burning
^ Ibid., 236. Cf. ViccHi, cxxci seq., who states : " Le Ministere
jugea que le pape avait raison en droit aussi bien qu'en fait."
2 ViccHi, Appx., 49 seqq. Cf. Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 248 ;
Gendry, II., 233 ; ViccHi, loc. cit.
' He did not leave Paris till February 7, 1793. Had he taken up
his post immediately, says Vicchi {loc. cit.), it would have meant
a victor^' for the Pope.
* ViccHi, Appx., 28 seq.
244 HISTORY OF THE POPES
of the art academy and French consulate constituted an
affront to the national sovereignty and a flagrant violation of
international law, the Executive Committee was to decide on
the measures necessary for the taking of a resounding
vengeance. Bassville's son was to be brought up at the
Republic's expense and his widow was to be granted a pension.^
Four days later Cacault, who shortly before had been com-
missioned to disapprove of Bassville's behaviour, was given
instructions by the Committee of Public Safety to present
the following demands to the Cardinal Secretary of State :
(1) The dispatch of a nuncio to Paris to apologize for the
murderous attack. (2) The withdrawal of the prohibition
against the erection of the Republican arms on the French
consulate. (3) The banishment of all emigres from the States
of the Church, in particular the Abbe Maury. (4) The punish-
ment of the instigators of the riots of January 12th and 13th.
(5) The indemnification of the Frenchmen and Romans
affected by these disturbances. (6) The restoration of the art
academy to its former condition.^
Naturally, Pius VI. refused to buy peace with the Republic
on such humiliating terms. Cacault was not allowed to appear
in Rome and had to stay in Florence, where he tried to be of
use by caring for the Frenchmen who had fled from Rome or
who were still remaining there. But the Republic was not in
a position to take steps against the States of the Church. It
had enough to do to protect itself against its enemies, both
within and without its frontiers. Consequently the Bassville
affair had to be allowed to lapse. ^
The calm that had settled over Rome since the middle of
January, 1793, was not to last long. The news of the execution
of Louis XVI. on January 21st shocked the whole civilized
world, England as much as the Continental states ; in Italy,
especially Rome, where the people were definitely hostile to
^ Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 253 seq. The consulate was only
slightly damaged (Gendry, II., 233).
" Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 258 seq.
* ViccHi, cxxvi seq.
FRANCE S ENEMIES JOINED BY ENGLAND 245
the French Revolution, a particularly deep impression was
made. During the king's trial the world had become inured to
the thought of a sanguinary issue ; nevertheless, when the
horrid deed had actually been done it had the effect of an
utterly unexpected and unbelievable crime. The whole
population of Rome was seized with sorrow and disgust. The
Pope wept for grief and passed a sleepless night. ^
The indignation of the Romans was now turned with
renewed fury against the Frenchmen who were still in the city
and their friends, especially the Jews. On February 11th and
I'ith acts of violence were again committed in Rome and the
people demanded the expulsion of every Frenchman. The
Government did all it could to protect those who were
threatened, if they had not already taken to flight, or to
remove them from the city. At the Government's request
pacificatory sermons were preached and agitators were
arrested. This last measure had a salutary effect, and an edict
of February 17th, condemning the excesses, also helped in the
same direction. ^
When England joined in the war against France and it
seemed likely that the Coalition would be further enlarged by
the inclusion of Spain and Portugal, the Pope could face the
threats of the French Republic with comparative composure.^
The Venetian ambassador, writing on February 23rd, said that
they no longer had any effect and that France would be
defeated by the British sea-power.* This atmosphere of
^ Figari's *report of February 9, 1793 (State Archives, Genoa),
and *Capello's of the same day (State Archives, Venice). C/. the
poems in Vicchi, Appx., 63.
2 See the reports in Vicchi, Appx., 58 seq., 60 seq., *Cardinal
Herzan's to Colloredo, of February 13, 1793 (State Archives,
Vienna), *Figari's of February 9, 16, and 28, 1793 {loc. cit.), and
*CapelIo's of February 16 and 23, 1793 {loc. cit.). The edict of
February 17, 1793, is in Vicchi, Appx., 59 seq. According to
Figari's report of February 16 there were attacks on the French
and Jews in Albano also.
' Capello's *reports of February 2 and 9, 1793 (loc. cit.).
* Capello's *report of February 23, 1793 {loc. cit.).
246 HISTORY OF THE POPES
confidence increased in March, when it was heard that the
French expedition against Sardinia had failed miserably.^
Shortly afterwards, it was learnt that war had broken out
between Spain and France.^ Tuscany, the only state in Italy
that still maintained relations with the French Republic,
offered to mediate for Pius VI., but this proposal he rejected.^
On the other hand, having no illusions about the military
strength of the Papal States,* the Pope was by no means
incUned to give his unconditional support to the Royalists
and thus give the appearance of interfering in France's
domestic affairs — a standpoint which was also adopted by
Austria, England, and Prussia. In spite of Azara's efforts to
persuade him the Pope declared that he could not recognize
Louis XVIII., Count of Provence, as a sovereign until the other
Great Powers had done so. The most that he did in this
direction was to send a confidential Brief, in French, in reply
to the letters he had received from the Count, one of which
purported to accredit Cardinal Bernis as ambassador. In this
Brief he expressed the lively hope that after the impediments
had been removed h^ would be able to recognize the Count as
a sovereign.^
Rome received with joy the news that the RepubUcan
1 Capello's *report of March 9, 1793 {loc. cit.).
2 Capello's *report of March 16, 1793 (ibid.).
» Capello's *reports of March 2 and 23, 1793 {ibid.).
* In spite of all the defensive measures that had been taken,
Figari considered them inadequate (*report of March 23, 1793. ioc.
cit.), and Capello wrote in his report of March 9 {loc. cit.) : "* £ piu
da sperare in quello che non possono fare i Francesi che in quelle
che possono fare i Romani." In his *report of June 8, 1793
{loc. cit.), Figari complained of the lack of discipline among the
troops, and in his *report of the 27th {ibid.) he referred to clashes
between the soldiers and " sbirri ". How little the Papal troops
were to be trusted is shown by the discovery of a plot that had
been hatched on a Papal galley in Civitavecchia, where 155 galley-
slaves revolted. Troops had to be called in to quell them and fifty
prisoners were taken to Rome. " Viaggiatori e corrieri in paura " ;
♦reported Capello on August 10, 1793 {loc. cit.).
^ Masson, Bernis, 535 seq.
THE POPE FREE OF APPREHENSION 247
troops had been defeated in Belgium by the Imperial army
and that Royalist revolts had blazed up in the Vendee and
Brittany.^ " Pius VI.," wrote the Venetian ambassador
Capello on April 20th, 1793, " is now free of all danger and
apprehension. He is on friendly terms with all the monarchs,
even the non-Catholic ones. Sweden wants to accredit an
ambassador to Rome ; negotiations are pending with England
concerning closer relations ; the Emperor promises the
recovery of Avignon ; and Spain and Portugal offer to
protect the Papal States with their fleets." ^ The same
assurance soon came from England, too.^ Thus, the Revolu-
tion, as Capello observed in another report, was forcing the
non-Catholic States to adopt a more friendly attitude towards
the Holy See.* So great was the Romans' admiration of the
Pope that they wanted to erect a bronze statue of him on the
Capitol, but to this he would not assent.^ He had had pro-
cessions held to implore from God a happier state of world
affairs,^ but he had so little confidence in the improvement
that had taken place in April that he had prohibited the
Girandola that was customary at Easter and the illumination
of the dome of St. Peter's, lest they might be regarded as a
manifestation of joy at the French defeat.' But when the
risings in Northern France persisted ^ and the Republican
^ Capello's *reports of March 23 and 30, and April 6 and 20,
1793 {loc. cit.), and *Figari's of April 6, 1793 {loc. cit.).
* " *Questa corte era affatto esente da pericoli e da timori, ha
motivo di gloriarsi della sua condotta politica, amiga di tutti i
potentati anche non cattolici " {loc. cit.).
* Capello's *report of April 14, 1793 [ibid.).'
* Capello's *report of May 25, 1793 {ibid.).
* Capello's *report of April 16, 1793 {ibid.), and *Figari's of
April 20, 1793 (State Archives, Genoa ; Corresp. des Direct., XVI.,
294 ; Tavanti, II., 206).
* Figari's *reports of March 2, 9, 23, and 30, 1793 {ibid.).
' Figari's *report of April 3, 1793 {ibid.).
* After fuller reports had reached Rome, Capello *wrote on
June I, 1793, that he had prophesied in 1789 that there would
be civil war in France ; the country would go bankrupt {loc. cit.).
248 HISTORY OF THE POPES
armies suffered further reverses at the hands of the Allies/
he was sure at last that there was nothing more to fear, and
on June 17th, at a secret Consistory, he spoke his mind about
the murder of the French king. He deplored the mighty fall
of France, that once had been the model for the whole of
Christendom and a rampart for the Catholic faith, and he did
not hesitate to describe Louis XVI. as a martyr, observing also
that even Queen Elizabeth had granted Mary Stuart, who also
had died for the Catholic faith, a decent burial.^ On July 12th,
1793, England, which had already concluded an aUiance with
Savoy on April 25th, won over Naples, too, for the war against
France.^
The spreading of the revolt in Brittany, in connexion with
which similar movements afterwards started in the south, the
anarchical conditions in the new Republic, the successful
prosecution of the war by the Alhes, and the taking of Mainz
by the Prussians, all made a very deep impression in Rome.'*
It was hoped that the Revolution would be completely over-
thrown, and in September it was decided to have the allocution
of June 17th printed and pubUshed and to send copies of it to
all the envoys.^ On September 23rd a requiem for Louis XVI.
was celebrated by Cardinal Bernis in the Cappella Paohna, in
the Quirinal, where the Pope resided in the summer. The
^ " *Continuano le vittorie degli alleati," are the opening words
of Capello's report of June 15, 1793 (ibid.), inwhichhe gives further
news of the rebellion in France.
* Capello's *report of June 22, 1793 {ibid.), and *Figari's of the
same date {loc. cit.). The speech is in Theiner, Docimi., I.,
177 seqq., and Vicchi, 91 seq. ; Bull. Cont., VI., 3, 2627-2637.
3 Coppi, 275 seq., 277 seq. ; Leo, V., 823 seq.
* Capello's *reports of July 6, 13, and 20, August 10, 17, and 24,
1793 i^oc. cit.). In the last-mentioned report he says, " ma
I'anarchia non e governo durevole."
* Figari's *reports of September 18 and 21, 1793 {loc. cit.), and
Capello's of September 21, 1793 {loc. cit.). Attached to the last
one was a printed copy of the allocution. Capello noted tliat the
epithet " martyr " and the reference to Mary Stuart had been
criticized.
EXECUTION OF MARIE ANTOINETTE 249
funeral oration delivered by Paolo Leardi moved many of his
listeners to tears.^ On November 12th a memorial service
arranged by Cardinal Bernis in honour of his murdered king
was held in the national church of S. Luigi, again with all the
pomp of the old France. ^ Shortly before, the news had arrived
in Rome of the execution of Queen Marie Antoinette. The
Pope's grief was shared by the whole city. As this fresh
outrage was likely to occasion further assaults on the French
and their friends, the Government took extensive precautions,
which this time were entirely adequate.^
The Pope had been taken ill in September and he had been
unwell the whole of October.^ On resuming residence in the
Vatican in November he decided to stay there permanently,
as year after year he had been ill in the Quirinal.^ He was now
seventy-five years old, and it was not surprising that his health
had been affected, for the year 1793 had brought him many
anxieties. He had witnessed the collapse of a great Catholic
empire, not only in the west ^ but also in the east of Europe,
1 Figari's *report of September 28, 1793 [loc. cit.) ; Gendry
(II., 239), who wrongly gives September 28 as the date of the
ceremony. Leardi's " Oratio in funere Ludovici XVI." is attached,
in its original printed version, to Capello's *report of November 16,
1793 [loc. cit.). It is reprinted in Vecchi, Appx., 109 seq. ; an
Italian translation by G. B. Carlieri appeared at Foligno in 1794.
* ViccHi, Appx., lib seq. ; Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 347;
Masson, Bernis, 358 seq. Bernis, whose influence in Rome had
almost gone, died on November 3, 1794. His body was taken to
Nimes and was buried in the church of St. Castor ; his heart was
kept in Rome and placed in the first chapel on the left in the church
of S. Luigi, where a monument was erected to his memory in
1805, at his family's expense. Ibid., 547 seq.
' Capello's *report of November 9, 1793 [loc. cit.).
* Capello's *reports of September 7 and October 19 and 26,
1793 {ibid.). The Pope's restoration to health was *reported by
Capello on November 2, 1793 [ibid.). See also Figari's *letter of
October 19, 1793 [loc. cit.).
* Capello's *report of November 23, 1793 {loc. cit.).
* Capello's *report of December 7, 1793 {ibid.) : " II S. Padre
e percosso di dolore mentre ora si comincia a realizzare in Francia
250 HISTORY OF THE POPES
namely Poland.^ In addition to all his other troubles he had
to deal with another matter that threatened to disrupt
the French Catholics, already so sorely persecuted. On
September 3rd, 1792, the Legislative Assembly had imposed
a fresh oath on every citizen, by which they were to swear to
uphold the liberty, equality, and security of persons and
property, and if necessary to die for the observance of the law.
A heavy penalty was to be exacted in cases of refusal, and the
question arose whether the clergy could take this oath. Some
of them took it at once, others held it to be ilhcit.^
In Rome this new, so-called " little " oath {sernient de la
liberie el de I'egalile) was attacked by Maury with all the-
passion and decisiveness of a Provencal. The Secretary of
State, Zelada, before whom the matter had been placed for his
consideration, rephed in March, 1793, that if it was merely a
question of a civil oath, it could be taken. On May 18th he
disavowed Maury, who had asserted that the Pope disapproved
of the new oath.^
With his usual caution Pius VI. had referred the matter to
a special Congregation of Cardinals. Inquiries were made and
the French Bishops were consulted. On May 28th, 1793, the
Pope reminded those concerned that he had not yet come to
11 processo di abolire il cristianesimo persino alle sue traccie e di
sostituire un culto secondo le idee del gentilesimo."
^ " *La S. Sede col perdere i due regni di Francia e Po Ionia
perde piii della meta del cattolicismo " (Capello, on April 19,
1794, ibid.). Cf. our account, Vol. XXXIX., 162 seqq.
* For what follows, see the excellent articles by E. Mangenot
(L' intervention de Pie VI. an sujet du sernient de la liherte et de
I'egalite) in the Rev. pratique d' Apologdtiqite , XXIV. {1917),
2^j seqq., ^^2 seqq., ^i^ seqq., 539 seqq., ^26 seqq., XXV. (1917),
355 seqq. He corrects the particulars about the works of the Abbe
Misermont in the Rev. d'etud. hist., 1910, and in Le serment de
Liberte-^galitd et quelques documents inedits des Arch. Vat., Paris,
1914, also the assertions made by Mathiez in Les divisions du
clergd refractaire in the Revol. frang., XXXIX. (1900), 44 seq.,
97 seqq.
'Mangenot {loc. cit., 351).
THE " LITTLE " OATH 25I
a definite decision and that meanwhile no canonical penalties
should be imposed on clerics who had taken the new oath ;
on the other hand, in doubtful cases neither clerics nor laymen
were allowed to take it.^
A final judgment on the new oath was never passed by
Pius VI. His personal opinion was that it should not be taken,
but he did not confirm the condemnatory verdict passed by
Maury, the French Bishops, and the Congregation of Cardinals.
In this question of the " little oath " the Pope, who had
absolutely forbidden the taking of the oath of loyalty to the
schismatic and heretical Civil Constitution, showed a modera-
tion that equalled his prudence and foresight.^
The hopes that had been entertained of the French
Republic's downfall were destined to remain unrealized. By
the end of 1793 the rising of the Royalists in the Vendee had
been crushed and the Coalition was in a most unfavourable
situation : defeats, instead of the hoped-for victories, were
being sustained on all sides, Prussia's further participation in
the war was doubtful, and Austria and Spain were weary and
exhausted.^ Cardinal Bernis' opinion was that if the next
campaign went the same way, it would end in complete exhaus-
tion and the Republicans would errierge the victors.* Such
being the situation it was obviously inadvisable to offer any
provocation to the French Republic, and Pius VI. was seriously
perturbed by the Romans' desire to celebrate the anniversary
of Bassville's death with a general illumination. It was pre-
vented by an edict of January 11th, 1794, and at the same time
1 Theiner, Docum, I., 173. Mangenot (XXIV., 259) points out
quite rightly that the oath demanded in 1793 during the estab-
lishment of the Departement of Mont-Blanc, was an entirely
different one, which was rightly forbidden by the Pope {ibid.,
XXV., 356) because it expressly comprised allegiance to the Civil
Constitution. For the oath demanded at Nice in 1795, which was
also forbidden by Pius VI., see ibid., 365 seq.
2 Mangenot, XXV., 367 seq.
* Baumgarten, Gesch. Spaniens, 501 seq.
* Masson, Bernis, 543.
252 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the clergy were instructed to preach sermons that would
help to calm the people's feeUngs.^
The real cause of the allies' ill-success, as the Venetian
ambassador Capello rightly emphasized at the beginning of
1794, was that each of them was striving to attain its own
particular aims at the expense of the interests common to
them all.2 They were waging not so much a war against the
Revolution as a war of conquest for themselves. Each of the
belhgerent powers wanted to be compensated for its mihtary
expenses by the acquisition of a French frontier-fortress or
some other territory. Unity was completely lacking.^ In
Belgium and on the Rhine disagreement among the aUies
hindered the winning of victories which would have been fatal
to the Revolution.
Pius VI. 's chief hope in 1794 was set on England,* which as
announced in the speech from the throne on January 21st, was
firmly determined to continue the struggle on which depended
the preservation of the constitution and the safety of the
whole of civil society. By sending Erskine to London in
August, 1793, the Pope had entered into direct negotiations
with the British Government,^ and among the beneficial
effects of this step was the alleviation of the deplorable situa-
tion of the Catholics in England.^
1 Capello's *report of Januarj^ i8, 1794 (State Archives, Venice).
2 Capello argued to this effect in his *reports of March 29 and
April 5, 1794 {ibid.).
'Capello's *report of February 15, 1794 (ibid.); Azara's
♦report to the Duke of Alcadia, of April 2, 1794 (Archives of
Simancas) .
* Azara's *report to the Duke of Alcadia, of January 15, 1794,
enclosing the edict of the nth {ibid.). The edict is reprinted in
ViccHi, Appx., 130 seq. Cf. Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 362.
* Erskine's mission, which was primarily of a commercial nature,
was *reported by Capello and Figari on August 31, 1793, as about
to take place in the near future {loc. cit.). In his *report of March
15, 1794 {loc. cit.), Capello observed that to have relations with
Protestant England was against the " Roman maxims " that had
been followed hitherto.
* It had an effect, among other directions, in Santo Domingo
BELGIUM PLUNDERED BY THE FRENCH 253
After England, Pius VI.'s next great hope was in the
Imperial army/ but after the battle of Fleurus (June 'iGth,
1794) the Austrian, English, and Dutch troops had to abandon
Belgium, which was consequently plundered by the French,
the churches suffering especially severely. ^ On the Austrian
General Clairfait's retirement before Jourdan's advance after
the battle of Jiilich (October 2nd), the same fate was undergone
by the towns on the Lower Rhine. It was especially those that
were the residences of ecclesiastical princes that provided
excellent material for the predatory and destructive activity
of the Revolution, which was in glaring contrast to the trees
of liberty it had planted and which soon disillusioned the
dissatisfied elements that had placed their trust in the initial
promises. It is significant that " holy Cologne ", that up to
the time of the Revolution had 118 churches, was now left
with only twenty-two.^
and all the British colonies. See *Azara to Alcadia on
September 24, 1794 {loc. cit.). On September 13, 1794, Capello
♦reported that England was now showing a more favourable
attitude towards the Catholics and that Erskine, in spite of
his being an Auditor, was staying in London " con occulto
carattere " [loc. cit.). Cf. his *report of November i, 1794 {ibid.).
For Erskine 's efforts to effect a commercial treaty, see Azara's
*letter of June nth, 1794 {loc. cit.).
^ Capello 's *report of March 15, 1794 {loc. cit.), with the
observation : " Questo ministro di Spagna [Azara] che non ha piu
I'influsso di primo, non rappresentera cio alia sua corte con parola
indifferente."
2 Weiss {loc. cit.), XVIII., 391 ; Pirenne, VI., 55 seqq.
^ Cf. H. Cardauns, Koln in der Franzosenzeit 1789-1802
(Bonn, 1923) ; J. Bayer, Die Franzosen in Koln, 1794-1814
(Koln, 1925). For the robbery of the cathedral treasures, see
Domblatt, 1852, No. 93 ; Ennen, Die Stadt Koln und die franzos.
Republik, in the Bclletrist. Beilage zur Koln. Volkszeitung (May 16
and June 6, 1869). For the French occupation of other places,
cf. Armel d'£tel, Les Capucins d' Alsace pendant la Revolution
(Strasbourg, 1923) ; M. Springer, Die Franzosenherrschaft in der
Pfalz 1792-1814 (Stuttgart, 1927) ; M. Salm, Die lothring.
Ahnengruft des osterr. Kaiserhauses, in the Hist.-pol. Blatter,
254 HISTORY OF THE POPES
In Rome, where the course of the war of the Coahtion had
been followed with intense interest, the news of all these
events was all the more shattering because of the high hopes
that had been entertained. In April 1794, the Venetian
ambassador Capello observed that the sky was growing ever
darker. He noted in alarm that revolutionary ideas were
creeping into Italy too : in Genoa even the nobility had been
infected.^ Things were much the same in Naples, where since
Tanucci's time the Government had been systematically
wearing away respect for the Church, writers such as Genovesi
and Filangieri had been spreading revolutionary ideas, and
the freemasons' lodges had undermined the ground. When
in March 1794, the Government finally took action against
the masonic intriguers, it was too late.^
To Pius VI., a prey to feverish attacks in April, ^ the battles
in Belgium were a cause of great anxiety. In May and June he
ordered public prayers to be said and joined in them fervently
himself.* Meanwhile the financial distress in the Papal States,
which the Tesoriere Generale, Ruffo, tried in vain to control,^
CLXIX. (1922 ; especially p. 653, where its destruction in 1793
is described).
^ *Letter of April 19, 1794 {loc. cit).
2 Leo, v., 381 ; Capello 's *report of April 5, 1794 [loc. cit.).
In his *report of April 26, 1794, he stated that the conspiracies
in Naples and Genoa had been the work of the French {ibid.).
For F. S. Salvi, a priest who had become a freemason and who
fled to Genoa, see his biography by C. Nardi (Genoa, 1925).
* Capello 's *reports of March 29 and April 19, 1794 {loc. cit.).
* Capello 's *report of May 24, 1794 {ibid.), and *Figari's of
June 7 and 14, 1794 (State Archives, Genoa). See also Azara's
*letter of June 11, 1794 (Archives of Simancas).
^ As Capello reported on February i, 1794 {loc. cit.), the
measures introduced by the Tesoriere Generale, Ruffo, had made
him disliked " *senza rendersi utile alia camera ". He had, in
fact, become so unpopular that Pius VI. decided to relieve him
of his post. Accordingly, on February 21, 1794, a nomination of
Cardinals suddenly took place and Ruffo was raised to the purple
along with A. Dugnani, Ippol. Ant. Vine. Mareri, Maury, G. Batt.
Bussi, Fr. M. Pignatelli, F. Lancellotti, Aurelio Roverello, and
FINANCIAL DISTRESS IN THE PAPAL STATES 255
reached such a pitch that desperate measures were adopted,
one example being the sale of the timber in the arsenal of
Civitavecchia.^ The Government was at its wits' end to know
what to do. The measures taken by Ruffo had been deeply
resented and had proved useless. The expenditure, which in
view of the political situation could not be reduced, was still
exceeding the receipts. No loan could be effected, nor was it
possible to impose fresh taxes, increase the paper money, or
debase the coinage, for these measures would have raised the
price of the barest necessities and have caused more riots.^
Giov. Rinuccinj. C/. our account, Vol. XXXIX., 348. The most
divergent opinions were passed on Ruffe's promotion, but — as
observed by *Capello on February 22, 1794 {loc. cit.) — -the Pope
" poco cura le censure e le satire. Pero dei nuovi ingiuriosi
cartelli sono stati jeri affissi contro il card. Ruffo, il quale
nell'uscire dalla casa Braschi fu anche urlato dal popolo mentre
il card. Maury fu guardato con qualche stupore, ma pero in
silenzio ". The promotions of Roverella and Dugnani met with
approval. Cf. Azara's *report of February 5, 1794, which also
announced forthcoming alterations in the nunciatures {loc. cit.).
1 Capello's *report of July 14, 1793 [loc. cit.). On March 22,
1793, he had *reported that as the charge for purchasing gold and
silver with notes already amounted to 5 per cent, the " Con-
gregazione di stato " was against the increase of paper money
{ihid.).
^ *Capello on March 29, 1794 {ibid.) : " Le irnanze pontificie
sono in maggior disordine di primo malgrado I'apparente severa
amministrazione dell'ultimo tesoriere generale che ha fatto
gridare tutti senza alcun frutto per la camera. In conseguenza le
spese superano di molto le rendite et le prime non possono
diminuirsene sino a che durano questi tempi calamitosi e difficili.
Non si puo fare un imprestito perche ora non si sa da chi, non
imposizioni maggiori perche troppo pesanti ed impercettibili,
non una aumentazione della carta perche caderebbe sempre piia
in discredito e nemmeno con alterazione della moneta sia col
diminuirne il valore intrinseco sia coU'alzarne il valore estrinseco
poiche questa operazione oltre molti altri disordini trascinando
naturalmente con se I'accrcscimento del prezzo di tutti i generi e
massime di quelli di prima nccessita, farebbe gridare il popolo e
256 HISTORY OF THE POPES
In May certain persons with leanings towards Jacobinism were
arrested in Rome/ but the State was defenceless ; in July
an expert observed that the costly fortifications in
Civitavecchia were useless. 2 The only hope now was that the
French Repubhc would continue to be preoccupied with its
enemies within and without its frontiers. Of the latter, the
English fleet seemed to be the most formidable, for which
reason its officers were received and assisted in the most
friendly manner possible.'^
For a time there was hope of stemming the advances of the
French in Piedmont,* but it proved to be illusory. The
abandonment by the Piedmontese of their position at Loano
on July 3rd left the French a clear road to Lombardy. In
addition, the news from Belgium was more and more dis-
heartening. In July the report was current in Rome that the
Joss of Ypres and Charleroi ^ had been followed by that of
Brussels. This, of course, caused great alarm. ^ For a time the
rumour was not substantiated, but there could be no doubt
that the situation in Belgium was becoming more critical
every day.' On August 9th Capello wrote that there was no
sarebbe imprudente e pericolosa nei momenti presenti. Questo
state non ha alcuna risorsa nemmeno nel patriotismo Romano,
siccome I'esperienza deiranno passato lo ha fatto conoscere."
1 On May 17, 1794, Capello *reported the arrests in Rome of
two " impudenti Giacobini ", namely Angelucci (" il piu bravo
chirurgo di Roma ") " ed un carlo Corona parente del medico di
tal cognome ". Suspicious papers and money had been found on
them. Arrests had also been made in other places besides Rome,
such as Terracina. State Archives, Venice.
2 Capello's *report of July 14, 1794 {ibid.).
3 Capello's *reports of May 31 and July 7, 1794 {ibid.).
* Capello's *report of June 28, 1794 {ibid.) : " Tutti i tentativi
francesi con 1' Italia fortunatamente abortirono. Respinti anchc
dalle parti dell'Alpi ccssa ogni motivo di timore. Roma e
tranquilla."
^ Capello's *reports of July 12 and 18, 1794 {ibid.), and Azara's
♦letter of July 16, 1794 {loc. cit.).
•Capello's *report of July 26, 1794 {loc. cit.).
' Capello's *roport of August 2, 1794 {ibid.).
CAPELLO S OPINION OF THE REVOLUTION 257
prospect of the French Repubhc being defeated by its foreign
enemies.^
In the middle of August the Pope, who was maintaining his
physical and moral energy wonderfully well,^ ordered more
prayers to be said in public,^ and it seemed that they had been
heard, for though there was no longer any hope of success in
Belgium the news that a counter-revolution had broken out in
Paris made it possible to view the future more cheerfully.^
But so soon afterwards as August 23rd Capello had to report
that there had been no counter-revolution but only internal
dissensions. He had to console himself with the teaching of
history that a democratic republic could never take root in so
great an empire as France.^ On September 20th, shortly
before he was recalled, and with Robespierre's downfall still
fresh in his mind, he wrote as follows : " As I approach the
end of my diplomatic career I must repeat for the last time that
it is only the French themselves that can overcome the
Revolution in their own country ; the Allies will collapse of
their own accord."^
^ Capello 's *report of August 9, 1794 (ibid.).
2 Azara's *Ietter of July 16, 1794 {loc. cit.).
' Figari's *report of August 16, 1794 (State Archives, Genoa ;
ViccHi, 138).
* Capello's *report of August 16, 1794 [loc. cit.) : " Tanto ne fu
piu grande I'allegrezza in Roma quanto fu inaspettata e la speranza
di sentirsi in breve. ... Re Luigi XVII. tiene in agitazione gli
spiriti." The news of Robespierre's execution had reached Rome
on August 13, 1794 ; see Azara's *letter of this date, with the
remark : " Parece que Barrere es ahora el que reina." Archives
of Simancas.
^Capello's *report of August 23, 1794 (loc. cit.) : "La storia
del mondo insegna che una Republica democratica non pub
consolidarsi in un imperio cosi grande come la Francia."
* Capello's *report of September 20, 1794 (ibid.) : " Vicino al
termine della mia carriera dipl. ripeter6 per I'ultima volta che se
la controrivoluzione in Francia non nasce da se al di dentro,
siccome un giorno e I'altro dovrebbe succedere, le potenze
coalizzate non finiranno che col rovinare se stesse, e ch'e cosa
258 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Conditions in the Papal States caused the Pope continual
anxiety. In autumn there was serious discontent among the
lower classes in Rome and in the garrison of the Castel
S. Angelo.i The financial situation continued to deteriorate ^
and as a result of the bad harvest the bread in Rome was of
a poor quaUty and it became impossible to supply the Enghsh
with grain. 3 In spite of ah this, however, the Pope preserved
his outward calm, though in view of the internal condition of
the Papal States and the depressing news from Belgium it
was doubted that he was inwardly so calm as he appeared
to be. 4
At the beginning of November it was learnt in Rome that
the French had entered Cologne and that the nuncio there,
Pacca, had had to leave the city. On November 22nd there
was further news of the rapid progress made by the French.
It could be seen already that the AlUes would have to make
peace. ^
At this juncture there were signs that popular feeling in
superba per essa, ma vera, che non vi sono che i Frances! che
possano in casa lore soggiogare i Frances!."
1 Capello's *report of September 27, 1794 (ibid.), and *Figari's
of September 26, 1794 {loc. cit.). According to a *letter of Azara's
of October 2, 1794 [loc. cit.), the lack of discipline among the
Papal troops had grown worse since Caprara's death, wherefore
the Pope had asked the Emperor for another general.
2 Capello's *report of September 27, 1794 {loc. cit.): "Qui
I'affare della moneta . . . sempre piii serio, parte la speculazione,
parte la paura facendo esportar fuori il poco nummario." On
October 4, 1794, he *wrote : "La perdita della cedole nel
cambiarle in denaro cresce sempre piu " [ibid.). And on
November 8 he *reported that " monete plateole " were being
minted on account of the " discredito delle cedole ". Cf. Figari's
♦report of November 29, 1794 [loc. cit.).
3 Figari's *reports of October 11 and November 22 and 29,
1794 {ibid.), and *Capello's of November 15, 1794 {loc. cit.).
* Capello's *reports of October 4, 11, and 28, 1794 {ibid.).
^ Capello's *reports of November i and 22, 1794 {ibid.), and
*Figari's of December 27, 1794 {loc. cit.). Pacca's arrival in Rome
was *rcportcd by Figari on January 10, 1795 {ibid.).
ANTI-PAPAL PLOT IN BOLOGNA 259
Rome, affected by all these misfortunes, was beginning to
change. Hitherto it had been distinctly Francophobe, but
now the cost of living and the numerous arrests were causing
discontent. It was chiefly directed against the Papal nephew,
Duke Braschi, who was accused of dishonest speculations in
grain, and who was undoubtedly so anxious to enrich himself
that he allowed no scruples to stand in his way. Whenever
he showed himself there were demonstrations against him. On
one occasion the glass windows of his carriage were smashed
and his footmen were roughly handled. At the end of
November it was discovered that a plot had been formed to
blow up his palace. The conspiracy was detected in time to
prevent the perpetration of the crime, ^ but in spite of all the
investigations and arrests the guilty persons remained undis-
covered, and the rumour spread that it had been intended to
set the whole of Rome ablaze.^
In the autumn of 1794 a plot to overthrow the Papal
Government was brought to light in Bologna. It was to be
carried out by thirty youths, mostly students at the univer-
sity, led by a Bolognese of the name of Lodovico Zamboni,
who was in touch with French emissaries. The attempt was
frustrated by the desertion of all Zamboni's companions
except one. Zamboni tried to escape into Tuscany but was
arrested and he and his confederates were brought to trial.
He hanged himself in prison. Of his confederates, the one
found most guilty was hanged, the others were condemned to
the galleys or to confinement in a fortress. It was on the
occasion of this conspiracy that the Italian tricolour made its
first appearance. Zamboni and his friends had added the
colour green, signifying hope, to the white and red of Bologna
1 Capello's report of November 22, 1794 {ibid.), most of it
reproduced by Brosch (II., 191).
2 " *Senza alcuna speranza di invenire i rei, quest'awenimento
non fa che tenere semprc piu viva I'inquietudine." (Capello's
report of November 22, 1794, loc. cit.) On the 29th he *reported
that a notice had been found calling on the people to burn down
the whole of Rome.
26o HISTORY OF THE POPES
and had had cockades made up of the three colours.^ Some
writers explain the choice of these colours as being connected
with freemasonry.^
^ Citations in Brosch (II., 194).
2 CusANi, Storia di Milano, V. (Milano, 1861), jo seq. The
tricolour was adopted as the symbol of the new State on the
proposal of Giuseppe Compagnoni di Lugo at the session of the
" Congresso Cispadano di Reggio Emilia " on January 7, 1797
(see L. Rava, G. Compagnoni di Lugo, inventore del tricolore,
Roma, 1926).
CHAPTER VIL
The French Clergy in Exile — Disestablishment of the
Church in France.
(1)
The critical situation of the States of the Church resulting
from the French Revolution- — a situation which grew worse
as time went on — did not preclude Pius VI. from following the
example of his predecessors in extending generous hospitality
to all who sought his help. The number of the victims who
were driven from their country by a political convulsion of
unprecedented dimensions and who were entirely at the mercy
of fate, amounted to several thousands. Among the numerous
Frenchmen who made their way into Italy, mostly into the
States of the Church, after 1790, principally in the years that
immediately followed, were not only suspicious emissaries of
subversive mentality, against whose undermining activities
the Papal Government could not take too many precautions,
but also many who were deserving of every sympathy, having
been forced to seek shelter and safety abroad by reason of their
loyalty to the royal family and the Church.
How nearly ecclesiastical circles in Rome, pre-eminently the
Pope himself, were concerned in the welfare of these exiles
was shown in the spring of 1791, when members of the French
royal family sought refuge in the south. They were the two
daughters of Louis XV., Marie Adelaide and Victoire Marie,
who, to avoid acknowledging the constitutional schism, left
the capital at the beginning of February and crossed the
Savoyard frontier incognito.^ Almost immediately it was
known in Rome that they intended to come to the Holy City
Cardinal Bernis sent them a cordial letter of welcome and
offered them his palace as a permanent residence. The Pope
^ Gendry, II., 150 scqq.
261
262 HISTORY OF THE POPES
sent a special courier, Bartolommeo Radavero, to meet the
royal fugitives, and gave orders through the Secretary of
State's oftice that all the officials on the route should show the
greatest possible attention to the two princesses. After a short
stay in Loreto, they arrived in Rome on April 16th.^ Here
they were met by Bernis and Azara ^ and by so large a crowd
that their carriage could only proceed at a walking pace. The
Pope sent his Maestro di Camera, Pignatelh, to welcome them,
and the Cardinal Secretary of State, Zelada, and other members
of the highest ranks of society waited on them in person. On
the following evening they were received by the Holy Father
in an audience lasting half an hour. The next afternoon their
visit was returned by Pius VL in person, a most unusual
gesture, contrary to all previous etiquette.^ At the Mass he
celebrated in their presence at the tomb of the Apostles he
gave them Communion with his own hands. The general
rejoicing in the city and the air of festivity among the upper
classes was increased by the presence of the King and Queen of
Naples, who had just returned from attending the marriage in
Vienna of their daughter Maria Theresa to Emperor Francis H.
The cordial welcome given to the two royal fugitives was
to set the tone for the reception of all the other emigres who
now flocked into Italy in very large numbers.
The many clerics among them, of all ranks, from the highest
to the lowest, were of particular importance, for it was on
1 An account of the reception is in the letter of April 20, 1791,
Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 19 seqq.
^Donado's *report of April 16, 1791 (State Archives, Venice).
3 " *Oggi doppo pranzo S.S*^e stato a restituire loro [the King
and Queen of Naples] la visita, ccremonia non praticata d'alcun
altro pontefice e che s'6 introdotta per la prima volta lunedi
verso le principesse di Francia " (report made by the agent
Donado on April 23, 1791, loc. cit.). Cf. Gendry, II., 153, and
Brunati's *report to Colloredo on April 19, 1791 (State Archives,
Vienna). A picture of the reception in ViccHi, civ. In his
Journal d' Emigration (ed. C. d'Hautecoeur, 76) D'Espinchal speaks
of emigries of the highest degree having arrived in Rome as
early as January, 1790.
THE FRENCH CLERGY IN EXILE 263
them that the decree of banishment in its severer form had
been pronounced by the new popular Government. " Good
God ! What tolerance is that which subjects, first to forget-
fulness, then to contempt, and finally to the most cruel
destruction a religion that once changed the face of the earth
so advantageously and placed human society on the founda-
tion of sacred laws ! " These words were spoken by Edmund
Burke, though he was not a Catholic, in the English Parliament,
against one who had spoken in praise of the revolution and its
freedom of conscience.^
After the introduction of the Civil Constitution the fate of
all who refused to take the oath of loyalty to it was definitely
sealed by the deportation decree of August 26th, 1792, unless
they very quickly left the country.^ In consequence, the roads
leading to the frontiers of France were filled with exiled clerics,
and as they crossed them many were stripped of their last
possessions and left in the direst poverty. Later, the priests
who failed to take the " oath of liberty and equality " were
also banished,^ and even those who did take it were not sure
of their safety, for if six citizens denounced them as suspect
they incurred the severest penalties.^ Thus, what was left of
the French Church was very soon to lose all its pastors, the
last and strongest support left to the faithful after the con-
fiscation of the Church's goods, the enforcement of the Civil
Constitution, and the prohibition of public worship.
Conditions were so uncertain and the spirit of the times so
hostile to the Church that the Papal States were practically the
only political organism in Europe in whose Government the
emigres could place their trust. And so it was here especially
1 J. Blotzer, Die katholische Emanzipation in Grossbritannien
unci England (Freiburg, 1905, 53).
2 Gendry, II., 195 (c/. above, p. 196). Cf. in particular
H. FoRNERON, Hist, gdnerale des Emigres pendant la Revolution
fran^aise (2 vols., Paris, 1884).
* SCIOUT, III., 376.
* Ibid., 377 ; Fr. Olmo, La rivoluzione francese nelle relazioni
diplomatiche d'un ministro piemontese a Roma (Milano, 1915, 120).
264 HISTORY OF THE POPES
that large bodies of fugitives sought safety. Their numbers
were considerably increased in the autumn of 1792, when the
French revolutionary army occupied Savoy and with the
support of a Jacobin party which was established there
demanded its union with the RepubUc.^ In October the
dethronement of the king was proclaimed at Chambery by a
National Convention of Savoyards, which sent a delegation to
Paris to affirm its loyalty. An immediate result of this
upheaval was the introduction of the Civil Constitution and
the deportation laws into the new Department of Montblanc,
whereupon the exiled clerics staying there resumed their
flight, this time into the States of the Church.
Most of the other States of Italy refusing to receive the
emigres,'^ the number of those within the area governed by the
Pope gradually increased to such an extent that their accom-
modation had to be systematically controlled. At the first
count, in 1792, there were 200 French clerics in the Papal
States, but by the summer of the following year there were
ten times as many, and by the autumn of 1794 they totalled
no less than 5,000. ^ It is hardly possible to describe in detail
the privations and sufferings to which this army of refugees
was exposed on its journey to safety. Stories were ex-
changed of the strangest circumstances in which high
dignitaries re-encountered each other on the high-roads.'* All
the splendour of an absolutist Court, including its ecclesiastical
elements, was here reduced to utter beggary. The last treasures
that had been saved had to be parted with to purchase the
1 SciouT, III., 394 seq. Cf. in general, Mourret, VII., 183 seq.
2 SiCARD, Clergi, III., 128.
^ Ibid., 106. Lists of names of the emigres in the States of the
Church and particulars of their treatment in Surrel de
St-Julien, Le clergd franQais iniigre dans les £tats de I'^glise
pendant la Revolution, in La Semaine de Rome, II. (1909), Nos. i,
4, 8, 12, etc.
* SicARD, loc. cit., 108 seq. Several individual instances are
given on pp. 108-111. Other anecdotes in Colomb, Quelques
episodes de l' emigration franQaise A Rome pendant la grande
revolution, in La Semaine de Rome, I. (1908), 4 seqq.
BERNIS' AND MAURY's HOSPITALITY 265
barest necessities of life. Church dignitaries cast off all their
insignia, even their pectoral crosses,^ and clean contrary to
their former practice sent humble petitions to Rome.^ The
rich collection of memoirs written at the time provide an
interesting and often touching insight into their beggarly
conditions.^ Thus, we are told by a contemporary : " An
extraordinary sight was presented by these droves of priests,
of all ages and ranks, trudging through the mountains and
almost inaccessible districts, where it was difficult to find even
the crudest nourishment and where they were often compelled
to sleep on straw or in stables. I can, however, assert that
during the" whole journey I never heard the slightest
complaint." ^
In Rome Cardinal Bernis continued to show the same
generosity towards other fugitives as he had towards the
French princesses. Every day he had thirty of them as his
guests. Even at his death, in November, 1794, this work of
charity did not cease, for it was continued by Cardinal
Maury. ^
It was not long before the Pope, too, reaUzed that the
unceasing influx of persons seeking assistance would have to
be controlled by systematic and legalized arrangements. The
first step taken was to accommodate the ecclesiastical emigres
in various ecclesiastical estabhshments in Rome, the Pope
himself seeing to their clothing out of his own resources.^ The
Bishops were allotted to the more wealthy convents, so that
1 SicARD, loc. cit., 112.
^ Individual instances, ibid., 1 14-19.
^ Cf. the evidence, ibid., 9, n. i.
1 Ibid., 7.
^ Ibid., iig seq. ; Sciout, III., 279. Cf. Masson, Bernis,
537 seq. For the colony of emigres supported by Maury at
Montefiascone, see Ricard, Corresp. du card. Maury, I., 163-170,
including two poems written by Emigres in praise of his generosity
(168 seq., 170).
* *Brunati to CoUoredo, December 31, 1791 (State Archives,
Vienna) ; report of April 11, 1792 {Corresp. des Direct., XVI.,
77)-
266 HISTORY OF THE POPES
their maintenance was not a charge on the pubhc exchequer.^
As time went on, however, the available accommodation
proved to be insufficient, especially as it was feared that
fresh batches would arrive when, as was generally expected,
all non-juring priests were deported by the French Govern-
ment into the States of the Church, as had happened in the
case of the Jesuits. ^
Accordingly a special institution for the care of the emigres,
called the Opera pia della ospitalita francese, was set up
by Pius VI. Its chief administrator, working under the
superintendence of the Pope and the Secretary of State, was
Monsignor Caleppi. By September, 1792, the organization
was complete, and in the next few weeks it was possible to
begin the work of assistance on a large scale. ^ The Bishops in
most cases were first invited to Rome by the Pope,^ and there
many of them were given fresh appointments in the States of
the Church ; the rest of the clergy were forbidden to enter
Rome without the express permission of the Secretary of
State. ^ They were instructed to have their papers made out
by the nuncios in Turin or Florence, whence they were allotted
evenly to the various districts.^ So as to know where suitable
1 " *Questi vescovi sono qui considerati sul piede degli antichi
confessori della Chiesa." (Brunati to Colloredo, December 21,
1 79 1, loc. cit.)
2 *Brunati to Colloredo, June 9, 1792 {ibid.). For the great
apprehension that prevailed in Rome, cf. Capello's *reports of
October 23, November 3, 10, and 17, 1792 (State Archives,
Venice), and above, p. 233.
3 Gendrv, IL, 198 seq. ; Theiner, Docum., II., x (this second
volume is devoted entirely to the documents referring to the
relief work). The Pope's circular letters and instructions regarding
the emigres in the Papal States were edited by Bourgin [La
France et Rome, 201-22) ; the number of collections of extracts
from the Secretary of State's dispatches contained in this work
(nearly 2,000) gives us an idea of the vast volume of correspondence
dealing with the emigres, apart from the relief work.
* SciouT, III., 279.
^ SiCARD, Clergi, III., 106.
* Theiner, loc. cit.
>
ORGANIZATION OF PAPAL HOSPITALITY 267
accommodation was available several circular letters were
sent by the Pope in October to the various dioceses, convents,
and ecclesiastical establishments in the States of the Church,
inviting them to express their willingness to receive the exiled
clerics and to indicate the extent to which they were able to
support them.^ Four agencies were established outside Rome
and its immediate environs, at Bologna, Ferrara, Perugia, and
Viterbo ; the areas with which they had to deal were carefully
defined and were placed under the superintendence of the
various Bishops.^ Both here and in the headquarters in Rome
lists of the emigres in the States of the Church were to be kept
up to date. Soon there was not a place that was not taking its
share in this great work of charity. To finance it, it was found
necessary to draw again on Sixtus V.'s treasure, this time to
the amount of 500,000 Roman thalers.^
The legal and economic position of the ecclesiastical emigres
was broadly defined in a circular letter of December 1st,
1792,^ and with full details in a further decree of January 26th,
1793.^ In twenty- four points it regulated the duty of residence
in the allotted place, the fulfilment of sacerdotal obligations,
and — where necessary — the participation in the canonical life
in community ; also mutual relations and the receipt of mass
stipends. Every cleric in receipt of assistance was required to
take an anti-Jansenistic oath, and if he had sworn allegiance
to the Civil Constitution in France, to make a formal recanta-
tion and to publish it in his home parish. It was also necessary
to see that an equable distinction was drawn between the
really needy and those whose circumstances had already
improved. Though inevitably several oversights occurred it
was usually possible to satisfy every legitimate demand. To
obviate excessive hardship the Pope granted exemption from
1 E.g. on October 10, 20, and 31, 1792, in Gendry, II., 199;
Theiner, loc. cit., xi seq. ; Bourgin, 201 seqq.
- Theiner, loc'. cit., xiv seq.
^ Ibid., xvi.
* Bourgin, 205 seq.
* Ibid., 207-212 ; Theiner, loc. cit., xvi seq., in a French
translation. Cf. Gendry, II., 200 seqq.
268 HISTORY OF THE POPES
certain regulations now and then. The revenues from pro-
perties situated in the Papal States but belonging to the
French Church were also utilized ; in this connexion Cardinal
Bemis was authorized to carry out a special visitation in
December, 1792.i
In the summer of 1793, when rendering a full report on the
Papal work of assistance, ^ Caleppi, basing his calculations on
a complete Hst of names, reckoned that of the round 2,000
clerics whose particulars had been taken only about 100 were
able to maintain themselves from their own resources ; for
the remainder an annual outlay of roughly 100,000 thalers
was necessary. The opening, therefore, of a public fund for the
assistance of the emigres was most opportune ; the task of
collection was undertaken by Prince Filippo Colonna, and
some handsome contributions were made by the Pope from
his priw purse. ^ At the same time, organized by Cardinal
Gerdil, a number of the exiles, possessing suitable qualifica-
tions, began the task of compiling voluminous works on the
contemporary history of the revolution.
To obtain an idea of the average support rendered to the
refugees by the cities of Italy we may take the example of
Urbino.* In response to an inquiry made by the Archbishop
of Ferrara, Cardinal Mattel, the competent authority, the
convents at Urbino offered to lodge and maintain indefinitely
twelve emigres. As a result, in November, 1792, they were
allotted fifteen ; economic conditions being what they were
the available resources would have to be reapportioned.
Shortly afterwards Mattel summoned the superiors of the
1 Gendry, II., 203 seq.
^ A translation of the text in Theiner, loc. cit., xxi seq.
^ Cf. the *report by the agent Figari on December 15, 1792
(State Archives, Genoa). A list of the loi most famous emigrant
clerics in Rome is in Vicchi, 149.
* What follows is taken from the essay " Sacerdoti francesi
ospitati in Urbino aU'epoca della rivoluzione 1792-1797 "
[Bollettino diocesano di Urbino, VII., Urbino, 1920, 29 seqq.,
64 seqq., 92 seqq.), based on documents in the archiepiscopal
archives at Urbino.
THE FRENCH EXILES AND THE ITALIAN CLERGY 269
convents and the priest-refugees to a conference, at which he
praised the generosity of the former in suitable terms and
exhorted the latter to show their gratitude by their
subordination. When, in the spring of 1794, after the occupa-
tion of Savoy and Nice, further embarrassment was caused by
the necessity of sheltering another large number of refugees,
Urbino, at Mattei's request, undertook the reception of two
more clerics. Furthermore, there is evidence that in the
years that followed more than one French cleric was given
hospitality at Urbino. During their long sojourn the exiles
and the native clergy were always on the best of terms, except
for one brief estrangement caused by the failure of the emigres
to participate in the ceremonies of Maundy Thursday. The
" good French priests " (" hitoni preti francesi ") became
proverbial. At times, it is true, these good relations were
interrupted, such as after the outbreak of the war between
France and the States of the Church, when the anti-French
feelings of the people sometimes showed signs of venting them-
selves even on the innocent victims of the Revolution. The
matter was put right, however, by the timely steps taken by
the Cardinal Secretary of State.
For most of the fugitives the period of exile lasted till the
Napoleonic concordat of 1801.^ The complete lack of unobjec-
tionable pastors in France weighed heavily on the minds of
these exiles, and by 1795 there were one or two who attempted
a premature return to their fatherland. They were forced,
however, to retreat again before a fresh outbreak of the terror
that took place shortly afterwards. In consequence, in 1796,
an ordinance was issued by the Cardinal Secretary of State,^
whereby anyone who decided to return home then definitely
waived his claim to be received back at a later date. Some
1 The subject as a whole is dealt with by Surrel (see p. 264, n. 3)
and in two works by a contemporary : Hesmivy d'Auribeau,
Mimoires pour servir d I'histoire de la persecution franfaise,
reciieillis par les ordres de Pie VI., 2 vols. (Rome, 1794-5) ;
Bienfaits de Pie VI. et de ses lltats envers les Frangais dmigres
(Rome, 1796).
2 On January 13 {Bollett. dioces. di Urbino, VII., 94).
270 HISTORY OF THE POPES
such ruling was necessary because at this time many other
emigres, mostly those who had been driven from their former
place of exile into other countries, were applying for admission
into the States of the Church, although several apphcations by
high-ranking ecclesiastics who preferred the Papal States as a
place of refuge to any^vhere else, had to be refused. Thus, the
Bishop of Lyons, who appHed for the admission of his diocesan
clergy who had been driven from their refuge in Belgium by
the Revolutionary armies, received the reply that this was
impossible as the States of the Church were already providing
for 185 clerics from the same diocese.^
The good example set by the Italian Bishops in making
personal sacrifices deserves honourable mention. Cardinal
Mattei, at Ferrara, continuously supported no less than 300
priests at his own expense and kept in his palace a large store
of clothing and other articles that were urgently needed.^
And his was no isolated case.
The Pope's solicitude for the French refugees was naturally
not confined to the clerics but embraced also the laity, though
the latter's need of assistance was not so great, either in point
of numbers or in extent. Nevertheless, several thousand of
them had been counted by 1794, so that regulations had to be
made for their accommodation, too.^ After reporting to the
Governatore and taking an anti-revolutionary oath, they were
divided into those who could provide for themselves, workers,
and the completely destitute ; they were then distributed in
the proportion of about two emigres to every hundred inhabi-
tants, due regard being paid to the degree of their necessity
and the nature of their occupation. They, too, were confined
to their place of residence and were obliged to report to an
official every two months. Whenever possible, their spiritual
needs were to be administered to by the clergy of their own
nation.
Even in these days we are impressed by the magnitude of
1 *Brief of January 18, 1794 {Episi., A° XIX., fo. 131, Papal
Secret Archives). Cf. Gendry, II., 214.
2 SciouT, III., 279.
=* Under date May 4, 1794, in Theiner, Docum., II., xxv seqq.
ITALIAN CHARITY TOWARDS THE EXILES 27 1
the work done under the direction of the Pope in support of
the victims of the French Revolution when we see the collected
records of the organization. They are comprised in no less than
sixty large folio volumes, which were incorporated in the
Papal Secret Archives in 1805.^ They bear the unassuming
inscription, De caritate sandx sedis erga Gallos 1792-1803.
This great work of Christian charity is also commemorated by
the Papal medal struck in 1795.2 But the people and the
clergy of the States of the Church also deserve the gratitude
of posterity for the unflagging generosity they displayed for
nearly a decade. Their solicitude for the exiles is an indication
of the scanty desire they had for the blessings of the French
Revolution ; its dubious value was revealed to them day after
day by the inhumanly cruel lot suffered by so many outcasts.
The loyalty to the Church and the Papacy that was mani-
fested everywhere by the people on the occasion of Pius VI.'s
journey to Vienna in 1782, bore rich fruit ten years later, when
innumerable acts of self-sacrifice, both large and small, were
performed in the name of human charity. These, too, must be
taken into consideration in forming a judgment of the period.^
Of the 30,000-40,000 clerics who emigrated from France ^
only a portion, 5,000-6,000, made their way into the Papal
States, for these States, too, being small and helpless in the
military sense, might sooner or later fall a prey to the
Revolutionary armies.
1 In his Docum., vols. I. and II., Theiner made use of about
500 documents from this source. Cf. ibid., II., •Kxx.iiseqq. A
special catalogue was begun in 191 1.
^ The inscription runs : " Clero Gallia pulso hospit. et alim.
praestita." Ibid., II., xxix, and Gendry, II., 219. The medal is
illustrated in Vicchi, pi. viii, p. 80.
^ An interesting diary kept by an emigre who described each of
the colonies of his countrymen in Rome, Northern Italy,
Switzerland, and Western Germany, was edited by C. d'Haute-
COEUR, Journal d' emigration dii comte d'Espinchal (Paris, 1912).
* SiCARD [Clerge, III., 130 seq.) arrives at the total number in
this way : England 10,000, Spain 6,000-8,000, Italy 6,000,
Switzerland 5,000, and several thousand in Germany and Holland.
272 HISTORY OF THE POPES
The reception accorded to the emigres by the Papal States
was rivalled by that of England. Fortunately, it was in 1791
that the law was passed there which abolished the heavy
penalties formerly inflicted on the " Papists " .^ In Parliament,
where shortly before speeches full of hatred of the Catholic
Church had been dehvered, Burke was able to include in the
speech already mentioned a cordial welcome to all the French
outcasts. " Come over to us ! " he said. " There is not a
moment to lose if you want to avoid the martyrdom that
awaits you in your own country." To the female orders also
he held out the prospect of complete toleration on Enghsh
soil.2
At the time of the September massacre the clergy of
Northern France fled almost in a body to the islands of Jersey
and Guernsey, where Cathohc Ufe was organized by the Bishop
of Treguier.^ When the war spread to the islands, which
happened soon afterwards, the priests continued their flight
to England, where, contrary to their expectation, they received
so friendly a welcome that their numbers were rapidly swollen.
In a few weeks as many as 6,000 were counted there ; this
number quickly rose to 8,000, and by the end of 1793 to
10,000. In the capital alone shelter was found for 4,000-5,000,
coming from a hundred French dioceses. Most of them arrived,
after severe sufferings and privations, without any belongings
whatever ; of the thirty Bishops stopping in London twenty-
five were entirely dependent on charity.^
In this secluded island kingdom the fugitives felt far more
secure than anywhere on the Continent,^ and they were treated
1 Blotzer, loc. cit., 37 seqq.
2 Ibid., 53.
3 Ibid., 54. Cf. A. Lemasson, Les paroisses et le clergd du diodse
actual de Saini-Brieuc. Manuel pour I'etude de la persecution
religieuse dans les Cotes-du-Nord durant la Revolution franfaise
(vol. I., 1789-1795, Rennes, 1926).
* Blotzer, 55. Cf. the account given on September 26, 1793,
by the Abbe Barruel, an hnigre himself (Theiner, Docum., I.,
366 seqq.).
'^ SicARD, Clergd, III., 10 seq.
THE £MIGR£S in ENGLAND 273
by the English people of all classes with a truly noble charity.
In view of this, the numerically insignificant party that
supported the Revolution soon ceased to taunt the emigres.'^
Bishop De la Marche, of St-Pol-de-Leon, quickly came to
the fore as the most trusted of the upper French clergy, and
with the support of leading British circles he set about the
task of organizing help for his fellow refugees.^ As the result
of private donations £40,000 were soon at his disposal. King
George III. leading the way with a gift of ;£1,000.3 It was thus
possible to pay each of the exiled priests 50 francs a month,
and the Bishops 250 francs, while many of the clergy earned
their living by giving lessons, working in commercial concerns,
and even performing the simplest manual labour.^ Winchester
Castle, which remained at the disposal of the refugees until
1793, accommodated 700 of them ; here they came under the
devoted care of the family of Lord Buckingham and lived as
a religious community with a former superior of a French
seminary at their head. Much intellectual work of no little
value was accomplished, and eventually the castle became the
centre of a regular home industry.^ The University of Oxford
contributed to the good work by printing a number of Biblical
texts based on the Vulgate and distributing them to the
French clergy.^
Although it had been administered with as little expense as
possible the fund established for the assistance of the emigres
was exhausted by the spring of 1793. The king accordingly
1 Ibid., 13.
- Blotzer, 55 ; SiCARD, loc. cit., 14 ; Gendry, II., 197 ;
L. Kerbiriou, Jean-Francois de la Marche eveque-comte de Leon.
£,tude sur son diocese breton et sur V emigration (Quimper, 1924).
He was known as the " Vincent de Paul de remigration ". Cf.
Revue d'hist. eccles., XXII., 151. The great confidence he inspired
can be seen from Burke's letter to the Archbishop of Aix, written
in July, 1791 (Theiner, loc. cit., I., 332).
^ SciouT, III., 282.
* Blotzer, 56 ; Sicard, 16, 19 seq.
^ Blotzer, 60 ; Sicard, 20 seq. .; Sciout, III., 283.
* Ibid., 282.
274 HISTORY OF THE POPES
ordered that August 18th be observed as a day of general
prayer and sacrifice, and on this day the Anghcan clergy made
door-to-door collections in person. The generous response
enabled the fund to function again for a time,i and even the
outbreak of war between England and France had no adverse
effect on these benevolent arrangements, but as time passed
the fund sank to a low ebb again, whereupon the Government
agreed to grant the French clergy a subsidy for as long as their
exile lasted. This subsidy continued until 1801. ^
For a long time past Catholic life had been almost unknown
in England, so far as the pubhc was concerned, and now a
sudden transformation occurred. More daily Masses were
celebrated in London than in most of the other European
capitals, with the possible exception of Rome.^ To facihtate
ecclesiastical life the Vicar-Apostolic of the London District,
John Douglass, permitted the emigre Bishops to exercise their
powers without restriction when dealing with their own clergy,
so long as they were in England.^
The strict sense of duty shown by the emigre clergy and their
blameless conduct won for them at once the esteem of the
Enghsh people. The age-old prejudices held by the Anglicans
were thereby removed and the banishment of so many priests
brought a moral advantage to the Catholic Church in England.
It is said, possibly with justice, that a movement in England
friendly to the Cathohcs and still appreciable in our own days,
may be traced back to those times. ^ Enghsh Cathohcism itself,
numerically weak, was directly affected to an extraordinary
degree. Cathohc institutes of studies and seminaries, which
formerly had been forbidden and had therefore been trans-
ferred to France, were opened again in England and rendered
great services for the education of Catholic youth and the
coming generation of native clergy. A Catholic library was
founded, also a home for aged priests and a hospital, and even
1 Blotzer, 56.
2 Ibid., 58.
•* Ibid., 59.
" Ibid., 58 seq.
s SicARD, CleygS, III., 31 ; Blotzer, 61.
PIUS VI. S GRATITUDE TO THE ENGLISH 275
the spiritual welfare of prisoners was not neglected.^ Most
significant of all perhaps was the establishment at Stonyhurst,
after a few setbacks, of a branch of the Society of Jesus. ^
The most conspicuous manifestation of the renewal of the
Church's life was the consecration in 1797 by Archbishop
Boisgelin of the first large Catholic church in London to be
opened since the Reformation. The ceremony was attended
by sixteen Bishops and many members of the French nobility.^
The many acts of kindness done by the EngUsh people to
the outcasts oi" la grande nation " were warmly applauded by
the Catholic world at large. Pius VI. was not niggardly in
giving praise and thanks to the benefactors of his loyal
adherents. In September 1793, he took the opportunity
offered by Erskine's journey to England to send the king, the
heir apparent, and Burke long letters of thanks for the great
charity they had shown the emigres and the English Catholics.*
A few weeks later, on November 2nd, he wrote to Bishop
De la Marche of the great consolation he had derived from the
hospitality shown by the English people and leading per-
sonalities— a hospitality in which the king himself had taken
a most remarkable part.^
^ SciouT, III., 283 seq. For Erskine's mission {cf. p. 252, n. 5)
and other relations between Rome and England, cf. Gasquet,
Great Britain and the Holy See 1792-1806 (Rome, 1919) ; Memoirs
of Cardinal Erskine, Papal Envoy to George III. (London, 1890) ;
and, in general, A. Lebon, L'Angleterre et V emigration franfaise de
1794 a 1801 (Paris, 1882) ; Mourret, VII., 175 seqq.
^ Blotzer, 62-5.
' SiCARD, loc. Cit., 26.
* Brief to King George of September 7, 1793. The " 1792 " in
Epist., A° XIX., p. 70'', Papal Secret Archives, is undoubtedly an
error, as the Brief definitely refers to a letter of Zelada's of
November 10, 1792. Theiner has wrongly attributed the Brief
to the year 1792 and has pre-dated Zelada's letter by a year
(Docum., I., 159 seq.). See also the Briefs to Prince Augustus of
September 2 and 7, 1793 {ibid., 197, 198), and to Burke of
September 7, 1793 {ibid., 199).
^ Ibid., 194 seqq.
276 HISTORY OF THE POPES
The astonishment of the CathoHc world at England's
magnanfmity was certainly well-founded, for no one had
imagined that a nation which had recently been persecuting
the CathoHc Church and which represented a schism that had
been made the State religion would come so nobly to the
support of the outcast clergy of the country that had been so
proud of its Catholic traditions and had been so recently
under the sceptre of the " Most Christian King ". Complete
toleration was also assured the fugitives in the Constitution
of the United States of America, which had lately won their
independence. This enabled the Catholic Church in North
America, still in its youth, to be reorganized, largely through
the activity of the Sulpicians.^
The Pope's sohcitude was also engaged by the emigres who
had sought refuge in the countries adjoining France on the
north-east. In many cases their stay there could only be a
brief one, as the Belgian Netherlands and parts of the
Rhineland were soon overrun by the French armies. Whoever
decided to stay on in spite of them was quickly taken off
and deported.^
Both Flemings and Walloons showed their readiness to
help the fugitives and distributed them among different
families. A large number of emigre priests settled down in
Maastricht.3 After the battle of Fleurus a huge stream of
fugitives poured into the German Rhineland and the rest of
Germany, where they met with widely varying receptions.^
Towns such as Cologne and Diisseldorf distinguished them-
selves by their magnanimity.^ One of the chief coUecting-
1 MouRRET, VII., 185 seq.
- Cf. *Brief to Cardinal Frankenberg of November 8, 1794
{Epist., A° XX., fo. 148^, Papal Secret Archives).
3 SiCARD, Clerge, III., 51 seqq. Cf. Rev. des quest, hist., LXXVIII.
(1905), 553 seqq. ; F. Magnette, Les Emigres frangais aus Pays-Bas
(Bruxelles, 1907).
^ D'Espinchal writes of a constant coming and going of dmigrds
in Coblenz (Hautecceur, Journal d'drnigration, 276 seqq.).
5 *Correspondence between the Rhenish Electors and some
dmigrds and the nuncio Delia Gcnga in Papal Secret Archives
THE UMIGR&S in GERMANY 277
points of the refugees was Miinster, where the prince-bishop
was a brother of Marie Antoinette. It was not long before two
Cardinals, two Archbishops, and twelve Bishops had taken
up their quarters there. ^ Cardinal La Rochefoucauld resided
here until his death in 1794. Many others were given generous
support at Ettenheim, the residence of the Bishop of
Strasbourg, who had retired to the German portion of his
diocese on the outbreak of the Revolution. ^
Those who sought help from the Emperor Francis II. were
directed to the city of Constance, on the lake of that name,
which soon became a centre of relief work for the emigres.'^
Particularly good service was rendered here by Juigne, the
Archbishop of Paris, who displayed great energy in collecting
money, even from very distant places. Thus, ;^200,000 came
from the Empress of Russia. A common table was provided
for sixty priests, and a hundred needy priests received sums
of money every month. Acting on the suggestion made by
Juigne and some other Bishops, Pius VI. sent a circular letter
in November 1792, to the German Bishops, Abbots, and
chapters, invoking their charity. At the same time he praised
the Bishop of Constance for his benefactions and encouraged
the exiles.^
(Principi, 267). Cf. La revolution frang. et les electorales du Rhin,
in the Annales de St-Louis des Frang. (III., 25 seqq.).
^ SiCARD, loc. cit., 55 seq., 62. For the emigres in Germany, see
especially the Rev. des quest, hist., LXIII. (1898), 148 seqq.
There are, for instance, *documents on the support of emigre
priests in the " Landesarchiv " at Salzburg (Wiener Akten Litt.
C. 89).
2 SiCARD, loc. cit., 61 seq. ; Hautecceur, Journal d'emigration,
225 seqq. A typical example of the hard lot undergone by the
emigres is described by a parish priest of Harskirchen, near
Saarunion (see Gass, Studien zur elsdss. Kirchengeschichte, II.,
Strassburg, 1926, 151-236).
^ SiCARD, loc. cit., 57 seqq. ; Gendry, II., 199 seq.
* The circular letter of November 21 is in Theiner, Docum., I.,
162 seqq., and Bull. Cont., VI., 3, 2560 ; and a printed copy was
enclosed in Herzan's *lctter to Colloredo of November 29, 1792,
278 HISTORY OF THE POPES
In other German States many French priests were accom-
modated individually. The Catholic hne of the royal house of
Saxon}^ was particularly hospitable, as were also certain towns
in Bavaria and especially the Franciscan and Capuchin
convents.^ Unfortunatel5% under the influence of the
Illuminati, the largest states, such as Prussia and Austria,
and even Bavaria at first, closed their doors to the emigres.
But some of the country priests and the ordinary folk paid
little attention to such prohibitions. ^ The Elector Karl
Theodor did at least instruct the monasteries and convents
in his territory to extend their hospitality to the outcasts, for
which he was duly thanked by the Pope.^
The hardest lot experienced by the emigres was undoubtedly
in Switzerland. The economic poverty of the country must
have made it seem impossible to receive a body of 6,000
fugitive priests ; nevertheless, it was the neediest folk, the
peasants, who showed the greatest willingness to make
sacrifices. They vied among themselves to befriend the foreign
priests. Even Calvinist Geneva, defying the French threats of
military reprisals, issued an official proclamation, assuring the
fugitives of shelter and security. It did, in fact, receive 700 of
them, and a public collection made on their behalf brought in
a goodly sum.* Naturally, the Catholic cantons were the most
sought after. Six emigre Bishops lived in Fribourg itself, and
at one time there were as many as eighty priests accommodated
in the surrounding villages. It was only right, therefore, that
this district should receive a special message from the Pope,
dated April 20th, 1793, in which he expressed his complete
in which the matter was discussed (State Archives, Vienna).
Cf. Capello's *report of December i, 1792 (State Archives, Venice),
and the letter to Juigne of November 21, 1792 {Epist., A° XVIII.,
fo. 199^ seqq. (Papal Secret Archives ; in Theiner, Docum.,
I., 160 seq).
1 SiCARD, loc. cit., 67, 69 seqq. Cf. Mourret, VII., 181.
* SiCARD, 68 seq.
3 *Brief to Karl Theodor of April 12, 1794 {Epist., A° XX.,
fo. ^%^, Papal Secret Archives).
* SiCARD, 34. Cf. Mourret, VII., 173 seq.
THE ]1M1GR£S in SWITZERLAND AND SPAIN 279
satisfaction with its behaviour. ^ A few months later he sent a
similar message to the Canton of Valais, which had rendered
equally good service.^ It must be said the accommodation
offered to the priests was often of a very humble description.
Their food for the most part consisted only of bread, milk,
cheese, and vegetables, and in return they had to do hard
work as field-labourers, carters, and the like. Others took to
bootmaking, set up laundries, traded in tobacco, or obtained
employment in printing-offices and workshops. Some even
occupied themselves in such feminine occupations as knitting
and embroidery. Many of them were authorized by their
Bishops to go on begging-missions on behalf of those who
stayed behind. Their wanderings, in which they suffered
many privations, took them to the Tyrol and Austria, and
even as far as Russia and Scandinavia.^
More emigres went to Spain than to Switzerland ; their
number is estimated at 6,000-8,000. They came from all
parts of France, particularly the south, so that at the time of
the main emigration the roads across the Pyrenees experienced
a veritable wandering of the nations. There were many others
who went by sea.^ Manifold privations and sufferings, together
with the necessity of supporting themselves by manual labour,
embittered the lot of these exiled priests. On the other hand,
the cordiality with which they were welcomed by the Spanish
people and clergy left nothing to be desired. A good example
was set by the upper clergy. Thus, at times, as many as 200
priests were lodged and boarded in his palace by the Bishop of
Valencia, and over 100 received similar hospitality from the
^ Brief of April 20, 1793, in Theiner, loc. cit., 169 seq.
2 Brief of August 31, 1793, ihid., 193 seq.
3 SiCARD, loc. cit., 35-40. Note I on p. 42 refers to their
descriptions of their travels. Letters from the Bishops staying in
Switzerland are in Theiner, loc. cit., XL, 8 seqq., 11 seq., 219 seqq.,
221 seq., 223, 243 seqq., 246 seqq., 2^g seq., 277-285, 371-7.
■ * SiCARD, loc. cit:, 89 seq. ; Gendry, II., 195. Ibid., 196, the
hospitality of the Spanish noble, L. d'Entraigues. Cf. also
J. CoNTRASTY, Lc clevge frangais exile en Espagne (Toulouse,
1910) ; Etudes, LIV., 5 seqq.
28o HISTORY OF THE POPES
Bishop of Siguenza. The Bishop of Leon provided food and
clothing for 100 priests, while 500 more were supported by the
Cardinal of Toledo, one of the wealthiest of the Spanish
prelates.^ Bishop Quevedo of Orense, in Gahcia, placed the
whole of his palace at the disposal of the refugees and
announced that every door in his diocese stood open to them.
He welcomed them not as strangers but as brothers in Christ.
" You French priests who have kept faith with God and have
deserved so well of the whole Church, are now the pride of
Spain. Its clergy regard you as a reinforcement and an
embellishment ; its Bishops receive you and treat you not as
guests or strangers but as fellow-citizens of the saints, as
servants and children in the house of God, as loyal auxiHaries,
as brothers and dearly beloved sons." ^ Many of the Bishops
asked for the emigres to be sent to them. A number of the
exiles made their way into Portugal, where they were taken
care of by the Bishops of Coimbra and Braga.^
Charles IV. agreed to the exiles being in his country and gave
them generous support, but he imposed several legal restric-
tions on them. They were forbidden to stay in the principal
cities or near the frontier, to preach, hear confessions, or to
teach, either publicly or privately, and those in convents were
compelled to live the life of the community. Later, owing to
Spain's political relations with France there were some isolated
cases of expulsion and deportation.^
But these were exceptions. While in France the Church was
hated and persecuted, the rest of Western Europe, irrespective
of denomination, took part in one vast work of Christian
charity, in which the greatest vigour and self-sacrifice were
shown by the see and patrimony of St. Peter, and this at a time
of dire distress.
1 Barruel, Le clerge frangais, II., loi ; Sicard, loc. cit., 99 seq.
* SiCARD, loc. cit., 102. Cf. his spirited circular letter on their
welcome in Theiner, Docum., II., i seqq.
* SicARD, loc. cit., 104.
* Ibid., 92, 95. Cf. the story of a parish priest from Brittany :
G. DE Grandmaison, Un curd d' autrefois, L'Abbd de Talhouet
(Paris, 1894).
BETTER TIMES IN FRANCE 281
(2)
The Christianity of France, so firmly rooted in the faith of
the people and the loyalty of its priests, survived even the
worst persecutions. After the events of the 9th Thermidor and
the execution of Robespierre the principle of toleration slowly
gained ground, even in the National Convention, while
ecclesiastical life, in spite of every kind of threat and prophecy,
emerged with retempered strength from the catacomb-like
existence it had been forced to lead during the Reign of Terror,
although the iniquitous treatment of the priests still persisted
for a time.
It was the Republic's financial difficulties that first gave rise
to the whole discussion about the Church's recovery of its
freedom. According to the assurances of the Civil Constitution
the State had undertaken the payment of the Constitutional
clergy's stipends and pensions. These sums had been repeatedly
reduced, and had finally been cancelled altogether. After the
downfall of Robespierre the claims of the pensioners had been
satisfied by the payment of the arrears, but the Treasury was
incapable of any further disbursements.^
On September 18th, 1794, Cambon proposed a radical
alteration in the law, the basis of which was that the priests
should be maintained by their congregations. His opinion was
that the French Republic ought not to pay either the expenses
or the salaries of any religious denomination. This proposal,
which was accepted with enthusiasm, was tantamount to the
abandonment by the Republic of all its former projects of
establishing a national church and was the first step towards
the separation of the Church and State, which at first was
wholly to the advantage of the latter. ^
This measure, originally intended as one of economy only,
inevitably led in time to consequences involving matters of
principle. If the State abandoned all obhgations towards
religious bodies, how could it have the right to pronounce
1 AuLARD, Polit. Gesch. der franzos. Revolution, I., 437 seq.
* Ibid., 438 ; De la Gorge, IV., 13 seq. ; Berger, Kulte,
92 5^^. ; Delarc, L'^glise de Paris, III., 307.
282 HISTORY OF THE POPES
judgment on and control the exercise of ecclesiastical functions
or, in fact, as it had done hitherto, to forbid it ?
■ The Constitutional Bishop Gregoire, who had prudently
retired into the background during the Reign of Terror, was
the first to come out into the open and put forward the corre-
sponding demands. Mounting the tribune of the Convention on
December 21st, he dehvered a speech which was to become
famous ; after a carefully worded preamble, full of the best
Republican sentiments, he demanded unrestricted freedom for
rehgious denominations. But he met with nothing but opposi-
tion and his motion was rejected.^
Nevertheless, the fight went on, chiefly in the Press. The
demand for the hberation and separation of the Church from
the State was made with ever greater insistence, and in
certain dioceses it was put into effect without further ado.^
Here and there old or infirm priests who had stayed behind
in spite of the deportation laws were practically forced to
hold religious services in public. When in Februar}^
1795, the Vendean rebels agreed to make peace they only
did so on condition that they were allowed to practise their
religion without hindrance.^ It was clearly only a question
of time before the concessions were granted to the whole of
France.
Only a few days after this peace of La Jaunaie the Con-
vention was to hear from Boissy d'Anglas a friendly word of
warning * : it would be foohsh, he said, to go on making
martyrs ; the scaffold only increased religious fervour. In
consequence a resolution was passed protecting religious
services from disturbance ; but the services were not to be
held in public or in the churches that had been sequestrated,
and it was still forbidden to invite people to attend them by
the ringing of bells or by symbolic signs affixed to the meeting-
1 De la Gorge, IV., 21 seqq. ; Delarc, loc. cit., 311 seqq.
2 AuLARD, loc. cit., I., 440.
3 De la Gorge, IV., 45 seqq. ; Pisani, L'^glise de Paris, II.,
162 seqq.
* Berger, Kulte, 91 seq. ; Delarc, loc. cit., 315.
GREGOIRE AND THE GALLICAN CHURCH 283
places. And the State also refused to render any financial
assistance to any form of worship.^
But the popular movement, once started, was not to be
diverted by the granting of freedom in so questionable a form
and proceeded firmly on its former course.^ Almost overnight
the religious life was resumed in every quarter of the capital,
and on the Sundays in Lent and, still more, during the Easter
festivities, the joy of the faithful was evident to an unexpected
degree. The legislators, taken by surprise, made vain attempts
to discourage it and check it in their public speeches and
writings. For a long time, however, the complete satisfaction
of religious needs was seriously hampered by the continuing
lack of priests.
This rebirth of Christianity in France, gratifying though it
was, was overclouded by the deep cleavage in the clergy,
which now became even wider than before, principally because
the adherents of the constitutional schism imagined that as
their existence was guaranteed by the Government the
religious future of the country lay in their hands. This national
church, now on the verge of collapse owing to its lack of popular
support, was rescued by its champion Gregoire, who gathered
round him all the Bishops of his party and in their name issued
a programme in the form of a pastoral letter. After May,
1795, the movement had its own organ, Les Annales de la
Religion, while Gregoire went on with the organization of his
Galilean Church, as he called it.^
The scarcity of priests and other restrictions on their
freedom told more heavily on those members of the French
1 Law of 3rd Ventose, IIL (February 21, 1795); Berger,
92 seq. ; Aulard, L, 440 seq. ; De la Gorce, IV., 49 ; Sicard,
loc. cit., 407 ; PiSANi, IL, 173 seqq.
2 Sicard, loc. cit., 407, 416; Pisani, II. , 181 seqq. ; Delarc,
IIL, 316.
^ De la Gorce, IV., 52 seq. ; Delarc, IIL, 329 seqq., 337 seq. ;
Aulard, L, 442 ; Mourret, VIL, 230 seqq. ; Pisani, L, 192 seqq.
For the life of the Constitutional Church cf. Pisani, III., 39 seqq. ;
ibid., 143 seq., and Mourret, VIL, 237 seqq., for its National
Council.
284 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Church who had kept faith with Rome. Several emigres, it is
true, considered it their duty to return to their orphaned
parishes, in view of the toleration that was promised and
although the severe laws of banishment had not yet been
repealed, but the increase in the number of non-juring priests
was very slow.
The greatest obstacle that impeded both the loyal Catholics
and the Constitutional clergy was the lack of suitable churches ;
the chapels and oratories available scarcely sufhced for the
needs of the former, and the schismatics were also in need of
churches. Consequently, both parties strove, above all, to
recover the confiscated buildings. A proposal to this effect was
put to the Convention by Lanjuinais, who pointed out that it
would be far easier to keep a watch on the services performed
in public places of worship than in private and concealed ones
and it would also be easier to put a stop to any developments
dangerous to the State. It was further proposed by the Con-
stitutionals that an oath of loyalty to the new State be imposed
on all who wished to hold religious services in the churches
that were to be handed back.^ When this proposed law was
approved the latter clause aroused many misgivings among the
clergy loyal to Rome, while the opposing party imagined that
in this respect they had gained an advantage. It was a grievous
disappointment, therefore, when in its interpretation of these
new demands, the legislative committee declared that the
promise asked for had no connexion with the former oaths,
and that on the contrary the Civil Constitution, which indeed
was the basis of the Constitutional schism, was no longer to
be regarded as a law of the Republic.^
With this last fundamental concession the new State had
to acknowledge the victory and the survival of the old Church
in France. It also meant the abandonment of the politico-
religious aims of the former leaders of the Revolution. The
recovery of the long suppressed Church could now make further
1 Lanjuinais made his speech on May 30, 1795. Cf. De la Gorce,
IV., 63 seq. ; Aulard, I., 443 ; Sicard, loc. cit., 416 seqq. ;
SciouT, IV., 387 seqq.
" De la Gorge, IV., 64 seq.
RETURN OF THE £MIGR£S 285
progress. Evidence of this was the considerably increased
numbers of returning emigres.^ Once again the frontier roads
and districts were traversed by priests, who this time were
moving in a homeward direction, under various disguises and
at the cost of manifold privations.^ But a long time was yet
to pass before the Church regained the measure of liberty it
needed. When in September, 1795, a new law was promulgated
regulating the whole conduct of religion, it proclaimed the
principle of the separation of the Church and State and the
freedom of the former, but attached to it was an ordinance
which was unacceptable to the Catholics, namely the pro-
hibition of the publication of writings composed by foreign
adherents of a religious faith. ^ This measure went well beyond
the demands made in the former royal placet.
The reawakening of religious life that had been welcomed so
joyfully by both people and clergy was further impeded by
the opposition offered by a minority of Jacobin persuasion
that deemed it its duty to suppress the alleged Royalism of
a section of the clergy. Goaded on by this minority, the Con-
vention remembered that the old deportation laws were still
formally vahd and resolved on a decree by which their
regulations were to be put into effect again within twenty-
four hours.* Other regulations governing the practice of
religion were made more stringent, and in other directions, too,
in this last stage of its existence, the Convention relapsed into
outbursts of terrorism. Thus, another oath of loyalty to the
State was imposed on the clergy, who had to testify to the
sovereignty of the people and to pledge their resistance to any
attempt to restore the monarchy.^ It is true that at the time
there was much talk in Rome, too, of an imminent counter-"
revolution in France for the purpose of restoring the Bourbons.^
' Ibid., 72.
- SiCARD, loc. cit., 422 seqq., 427 seq.
^ AuLARD, I., 444 ; Berger, Kulte, 94 seq.
' Law of September 6, 1795 (De la Gorce, IV., 75 ; Aulard, I.,
445)-
5 Ibid.
' Capello's *report from Rome of August 16, 1794 (State
286 HISTORY OF THE POPES
At the same time the principle of the separation of the
Church and State and the latter's indifference to all forms of
worship was consistently upheld and played its part in the
constitutional work of the Convention, namely the so-called
Constitution of the 3^ear III. This was the foundation of the
liberalistic attitude of the bourgeois Repubhc, in ecclesiastical
as well as other spheres.^
When the National Convention dissolved itself and its place
was taken by the new constitutional bodies, namely the
Conseil des Cinq-Cents, the Conseil des Anciens, and the
Directory, of five members, the opposition between the popular
movement for rehgious freedom and the reaction of a Jacobin
minority became more and more acute, especially as the
latter's firmest supporters were among the directors of the
State. Many of them impelled by hatred not only of the Church
but of everything Christian,^ the Directors wanted to restore
the Reign of Terror and paved the way for it by a series of
measures the true purpose of which was purposely concealed.
Popular resistance, however, increased in proportion, and
finally the provincial and district authorities were courageous
enough to refrain from giving effect to the Government's
anti-clerical regulations. Nevertheless, many of the emigres
who had returned to France fell victims to the Directory's
fresh campaign of persecution.^
During the two succeeding years also, 1796 and 1797, in
spite of every obstacle, the reawakened life of the Church
continued to gather strength. Here and there, in spite of the
Archives, Venice). He was persuaded that democracy could not
last in France (see above, p. 257, n. 5). For the sad fate of the
Dauphin, who died in 1795 as the result of ill-treatment, see
A. DE Beaumont, Louis XVII., sa vie, son agonie, sa mort
("Paris, 1884).
1 SicARD, Clerge, III., 410 ; Aulard, II., 534 ; Delarc, III.,
333 5e??- ; Berger, Kulte, 93 seq.
* A. GiOBBio, La Chiesa e lo Stato in Francia durante la
Rivoliizione 1789 sino 1799 (Roma, 1905, 256). Cf. Scioux, IV.,
438 seqq.
* De la Gorge, IV., 91-100.
THE JACOBINISM OF THE DIRECTORY 287
prohibition, the church bells called the faithful to divine
service ; religious houses, confessional schools, and even
nunneries opened their doors in increasing numbers ^ ; and
many priests who had sworn allegiance to the Civil Constitu-
tion recanted and sought readmission to the old communion.^
The number of returning emigres also increased, though only
one Bishop dared to join them.^ Once again Paris was at the
head of the movement.*
It was only the Directory that maintained the Jacobin
opinion and thought of anti-clerical measures. It persisted
on this course even when the elections to the Conseil des
Cinq-Cents in 1797 resulted in the overwhelming success of
the anti-Jacobins and there were numerous requests from all
parts of the country for the complete freedom of the Church.^
The words of exhortation uttered in Parliament in June of this
year by a young deputy from Lyons, Camille Jordan, gave
expression to the nation's satiety with revolution and its
religious fervour : " Make civil peace by means of religious
peace and liberty of conscience for everyone ! " ^ In other
ways, too, the demand for the " Faith of Our Fathers " grew
ever more insistent.
Several fresh alleviations were in fact obtained, and finally
after a few weeks the new Chamber decided to repeal the laws
of banishment and the recent oath of loyalty to the State.'
This blow against the revolutionary pohcy towards the Church,
which was carried out only"as the result of a narrow majority,
^ Ibid., 128 seqq., 145 seqq., 204 seqq.
2 Bliard, La premiere retractation solennelle d'un eveque intrus,
fevr. 1796 [F. Panisset], in the Rev. des quest, hist., LI. (1923),
115 seq. Other cases in Delarc, III., 327 seq., 372 seqq.
3 The Bishop of Vienne, who had already shown outstanding
courage. De la Gorge, IV., 207 seq.
* Sicard, loc. cit., 432 seqq.
5 De la Gorge, IV., 166-172 ; Aulard, IL, 546 ; Scioux, IV.,
547 seqq.
« De la Gorge, IV., 174-8 ; Scioux, IV., 557 seqq.
' The repeal of the deportation laws was proposed by Dubruel
on June 26, 1797. De la Gorge, IV., 183-8.
288 HISTORY OF THE POPES
provoked the Jacobin opposition to resort to extreme measures.
Now or never was the time for them to rescue the heritage
of the atheists. From now on the leading members of the party
and the Directory, which for the most part was favourably
inclined towards it, never ceased to hatch those perilous
plots ^ that finally led to the coup d'etat of the 18th Fructidor
and caused a serious setback to religious life in the Republic.
1 Ibid., 197 seqq.
CHAPTER VIII.
Bonaparte and the French in the Papal States — The
Establishment of the Roman Republic and the
Expulsion of the Pope.
The period that began with the fall of Robespierre and ended
with the second victory of the Republicans through the coup
d'etat of 18th Fructidor VI. (September 4th, 1797) i was for
France a renewal of its religious life, but for the head of the
Church and the Papal States it was the beginning of a deep
humiliation.
Though the Pope, as head of the Church, had been com-
pelled to adopt a disapproving attitude towards the French
Republic on account of the persecution of the Catholics, as
ruler of the Papal States he took care not to take any active
part in the war of the Coalition. In this war against the anti-
religious Republic he had, it is true, his hopes and desires, but
he preserved the neutrality of the Papal States and gave no
armed or financial assistance to the Allies. At the end of 1794
all the Cardinals were in favour of maintaining this neutrality.^
The ruler of the Papal States had, however, to suffer for the
Republicans' hatred of the head of the Church, as was seen
at the end of 1792 and the beginning of 1793, when there was
a dispute about the national emblem ; and it was shown by
1 Even as early as August 12, 1797, a *Brief to Cardinal Roche-
foucauld referred to the Pope's joy at the change of tone in France:
" Haec unica multoque laetissima Nobis erit summi diuturnique
quo hactenus obruebamur, doloris compensatio." Epist.,
A° XXII./XXIII., fo. I66^ Papal Secret Archives.
* A. Capello *reported on November 13, 1794, that when the
Emperor asked Albani, who was going to Vienna, for troops and
money, almost all the Cardinals were against it not only because,
as they said, there was no money available but also because they
objected to " uscire dalla neutralita " (State Archives, Venice).
VOL. XL. 289 u
290 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Bassville's behaviour. Further, though the reUgious change
that began in Paris in 1794 seemed to promise a certain
improvement in relations,^ it had httle effect so far as Rome
was concerned, principally because the majority of the
Directory was openly hostile to the Church.
The Pope's hopes for the Coalition's success in the war were
sadly diminished in 1795, owing to the falling away, one by
one, of France's enemies. Prussia made separate peace with
the Republic at Bale by ceding the left bank of the Rhine.
In September, when Azara privately informed the Secretary
of State— emphasizing the unofficial nature of his com-
munication— that peace had also been made between France
and Spain several weeks before,^ the Pope made known his
regret, not merely on account of the politico-ecclesiastical
situation but because of the whole political system which he
perceived to be at work here. He was only partly consoled by
the assurance that Spain was undertaking the role of inter-
mediary between the Holy See and the Republic.^
In other directions, too, the poUtical friends of the Papal
States were none too many. During these critical years the
Pope was distressed and pained by the attitude of the
1 Capello *reported on September 8, 1794, that in Paris the
system of " moderazione " had superseded tyranny, and on
November 29, 1794, that the moderates had overcome the
Jacobins {ibtd.).
2 *Pesaro to the Doge, August 8, 1795 (State Archives, Venice).
On August 12, 1795, *Azara asked his Government for precise
instructions as to his attitude in the French affair (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome).
3 " *jrj Papa personalmente desaprueva nuestra paz no tanto
por motivo de religion quanto por su falso sistema politico . . .
Lo demas de Roma se ha alegrado ne nuestra paz. Los emigrados
franceses que hai aqui la abominan como es natural. Venecia la
celebra. Toscana la aplaude pero Napoles la detesta hasta con
indecencia contra Espana, al mismo tiempo que por ahi la desea y
solicita, pero su tratado impcndente con Ingleterra sera siempre un
poderoso estorbo para conscguirla." (Azara to Dc la Paz,
September 30, 1795 ; Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome.)
Cf. *Azara to the same, October 7, 1795 {ibid.).
ROME AND NAPLES 29I
Neapolitan Government.^ All the attempts made in 1794 to
settle the politico-ecclesiastical differences came to naught.
In the summer the former Spanish envoy to Paris, Fernan
Nunez, accompanied by Evangelisti, was sent by the Pope to
Naples to effect a settlement,- but after a few weeks the private
conversations ^ were broken off and Nunez came back without
accomplishing anything.^ The Pope found himself compelled
to take an uncompromising attitude in the matter of episcopal
nominations.^ Towards the end of the year further friction
resulted from the enfeoffment of Cardinal Ruffo by the King
of Naples, with the abbey of S. Sofia, at Benevento.^
Finally, Pius VI. was left with Austria as his strongest
ally, but the Austrian armies in Northern Italy were soon
confronted with a general of extraordinary ability, the
Corsican Bonaparte, who had won his spurs at Toulon, had
been put in command of the army in France in October, 1795,
and in March, 1796, had been entrusted with the direction of
the campaign in Northern Italy.'
The Papal States were incapable of repelhng an invasion by
the Revolutionary troops, and their internal conditions were
far from sound. In the winter and spring of 1795 there were
^ *Capello to the Doge, June 21, 1794 (State Archives, Venice).
* *Capello on August 16, 1794 (ibid.).
* *Id., August 23, 1794 {ibid.).
* *Id., September 16, 1794 {ibid.).
® Capello *reported on this on August 30, 1794 {ibid.).
® *Id., December 6, 1794 {ibid.). Ruffo made it out to be a good
sign, but Pius VI. refused to be misled and answered him very
sharply in a *Brief of November 28, 1794, remarking that the
Cardinal knew very well where it was his duty to reside as long
as the Pope had no need of him elsewhere ; the Abbey of S. Sofia
had always been presented by the Holy See ; it was not an
" inaspettabile felicita " but a " sacrilega percezione de' redditi
ecclesiastici " ; he ought to emulate his great -uncle Cardinal
Tommaso Ruffo in his contempt for material gain. {Epist.,
Ap XXI., fo. 48 ; Papal Secret Archives).
' KuHL, Bonapartes erster Feldzug 1796, Berlin, 1902, j^ seqq.,
135. He assumed the chief command at Nice on March 27. Felix
BouviER, Bonaparte en Italic 1796, Paris, 1899, i.
292 HISTORY OF THE POPES
riots about the bad bread both in Rome itself and in places
outside/ so that the Pope had to make provision for the time
that was still to pass before the harvest. ^ Then the coinage had
been debased more than once,^ and to improve it silver was
taken from the churches.* Nevertheless, there were more
bread riots in the following winter and paper money was
issued for one sctido and for a half scttdo.^ In the autumn of
1795 Azara foretold that the effects of the financial crisis would
be most damaging to the State. ^ And, indeed, it was not long
before the fate that had long been hanging over the Papal
States actually came to pass.
When, in February, 1793, the National Convention com-
municated the terms on which it would accept satisfaction for
1 *Figari's reports of January 17, February 7 and 14 (Rome),
February 28 (Albano), April 25 (at Termo), 1795 (State Archives,
Genoa) .
- *Figari, June 13, 1795 {ibid.).
' As the Pope was proceeding to the Quirinal in July the people
called out to him : " Pane buono e moneta ! " (*Figari, July 18,
1795 ; ibid.). Cf. *id., August 22, September 5 and 12, 1795 {ibid.).
'' *Id., September 19, 1795 (" Nondimeno il sistema monetario
e sempre incerto e fluttuante "), and November 28, 1795 {ibid.).
For the financial edict of August 29 and its consequences, cf.
*Pesaro to the Doge, August 22, September 5, 12, 19, 26, October 3
and 10, 1795 (State Archives, Venice).
^ *Figari, October 31, November 7 and 14, 1795, January 2,
April 2 and 23, 1796 {loc. cit.). The economy reforms in the army
were *reported by him on March 12, 1796 {ibid.).
* Azara to De la Paz, September 30, 1794 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome) : " *La falta de moneda efectiva, en
que se halla Roma, ha llegado a tal exceso que va a producir las
consequencias mas funestas para el estado y por lo punto ya
produce un movimiento tal en el pueblo que yo no se que nombre
darle." There follow copious and interesting details. Cf. also
Pesaro's *reports to the Doge, from January 10, 1795, onwards
{loc. cit.), the subject-matter of which was continually used by
Anna Rubino without giving exact references in La Vita Italiana,
XIV. (1926), 131 seqq., 158 scqq., XV. (1927), 37 seqq., 109 seqq.
Cf. especially XIV., 132 seqq., 147 seqq.
BONAPARTE INVITED TO DESTROY ROME 293
the murder of Bassville, they were considered by Rome to be
too unjust and humihating to be fulfilled, even at the cost of
the war that the Republic was already threatening to let loose. ^
At the time, however, France was too heavily committed in
other theatres of war to carry out the threat. When the
Directory came to power the situation had changed. One of its
principal aims was the destruction of the Papal authority,
both spiritual and temporal. Harking back to the threat of
war, it decided that Bonaparte, who during the past few weeks
had won its complete confidence was, with his energy and
ambition, the man best suited to carry out the project. In a
communication dated February 3rd, 1796, he was invited to
consider the idea of destroying Rome as a scourge in the hands
of fanaticism ; it was not a definite instruction and was only
to be acted on if opportunity offered. ^ As expected, the
young general, thirsting for glory, eagerly embraced the
project, the execution of which would establish him as a
world-famous figure for ever. Accordingly, during the next
few weeks, while the Austrians were retiring from the Adda
to the Mincio, he decided to act boldly.
At the beginning of May the Secretary of State received
word from the Cardinal Legates at Ferrara and Bologna that
the plain of Piacenza had been invaded by a French army
10,000 strong.^ A few days later Milan was taken, and on
May 21st Bonaparte issued from there a proclamation
regarding his intended march on Rome. " We are the friends
of every nation," he declared, " especially the descendants of
Brutus and the Scipios. Our intention is to restore the Capitol,
to set up there in their honour the statues of the men who won
renown, and to free the Roman people from their long slavery.
This will be the fruit of your victories." ^
Thus, war was declared on the States of the Church without
^ Cf. above, p. 244.
^MouRRET, VII., 251.
* Ibid., 252. Gendry, II., 244. The Pope, who was in the
Pontine Marshes at the time, hurried back to Rome. (*Figari's
report of May 14, 1796 ; State Archives, Genoa.)
* BouviER, Bonaparte en Italic 1796, 6^4 seq.
294 HISTORY OF THE POPES
regard for international law, and the French troops, eager for
plunder, overran the legations of Ravenna, Ferrara, and
Bologna.^ The economic and miUtary situation of the
Patrimony of St. Peter was so bad ^ that there was no question
of any serious resistance. The only course left to Rome was to
negotiate for a speedy truce and by making concessions to
save the Eternal City and the Holy See from complete disaster.
Neapohtan support could only plunge it into fresh perils.
The requests made by the King of Naples to be allowed to con-
duct his troops through the Papal States to Lombardy and
there to resist the French were, it is true, acceded to on
principle by the Pope, but at the same time he tried to dissuade
him from the project, which would have imperilled the Papal
States as well as the kingdom of Naples.^
As Rome was not disposed to acknowledge, even tacitly,
the revolutionary Government of France by entering into
direct negotiations with it,^ it sought in its distress the
mediation of Spain, in accordance with their agreement. It
1 For the French advance, see *Figari's reports of June ii and
25, 1795 [loc. cit.) ; Du Teil, Rome, Naples et le Directoire, 132 seqq.
For the entry into Bologna : A. Aglebert, / primi niartiri della
libertd italiana : congiura e morte di Liiigi Zamboni e G.B. de
Rolandis in Bologna, no place of publication, 1862, 157 seq.
On June 30, 1799, when Bologna was retaken by the Austrians,
the ashes of these revolutionary conspirators were scattered to
the winds {ibid., 171).
- On September 30, 1795, Azara, *reporting to De la Paz,
gave a very full and interesting account of the financial plight of
Rome (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome). For the
relative ordinances, cf. *Mendizabal to De la Paz, June i, 1796
[ibid.).
' *Azara to De la Paz, May 18, 1796 : The King of Naples is
exhorting the Pope to follow his example and decide on war
against the French. *Id., May 26, 1796 : a chilly reception was
given in Naples to the news that the Pope was not going to make
war but would rely on Spain's mediation {ibid.).
* The Pope would rather suffer the consequences than complain
to the French representative {*Pesaro to the Doge, April 2, 1796 ;
State Archives, Venice).
AZARA REPRESENTS THE HOLY SEE 295
was also moved to take this step by the consideration that
Azara, the Spanish envoy to the Vatican, had acquired an
adequate knowledge of the Papal States in the thirty years he
had held the post. The envoy was accordingly recalled to
Rome from his rural retreat in the Campagna by an urgent
note from the Secretary of State.^ The Pope in his turn hurried
back from Terracina, where he had arrived the da}/ before and
where he had intended to spend the rest of the month. ^ In
Rome Zelada informed the envoy of the Pope's desire to send
him to Bonaparte as the representative of the Holy See. The
Pope, never very forceful and suffering from poor health at the
time, had previously given way to his nephew Braschi's
request that the Roman banker Botoni be sent as a negotiator,
and the latter was already on his way. It was only when he
was assured that Botoni would be recalled and when other
misgivings had been dispelled that Azara agreed to undertake
the mission, in which he was to be accompanied by the
Marchese Gundi. In his absence the affairs of the embassy
were to be conducted by his secretary Mendizabal.
Wide circles of those most competent to judge and the
general public were vastly pleased to hear of Botoni's recall,
though it was feared that in his discomfiture he would set
going spiteful intrigues. Azara' s journey was not accom-
plished without a hitch. The rumour spread in Rome that he
had been murdered in the neighbourhood of Lodi. This proved
to be false, but he had fallen into the hands of robbers and had
to pay them money to spare his life and release him.^
When Azara's mission and, shortly afterwards, the desire of
the Neapohtan Government to conclude a treaty of neutrahty
1 Azara *reported fully on subsequent events to De la Paz on
May 18, 1796, attention being given to all points of view (Archives
of the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
2 *Pesaro to the Doge, May 14, 1796. He also reported on
Azara's long audience on the previous evening (State Archives,
Venice) .
3 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, June i, 1796 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome), and June 8, 1796 (S^che, Les origines
(ill concordat, I., 178).
296 HISTORY OF THE POPES
with France became known to the Roman people, they received
the news with rehef.^ Similarly the Pope's letter of June 12th,
in which he informed the Spanish Court of Azara's mission and
promised a present for the king, was one of confident hope.^
Meanwhile Bonaparte went on with his military operations.^
At Ferrara there was a cannonade lasting half a day and then
the troops moved against Bologna, where a delegation of
several officers and forty cavalrymen gave the Legate the
choice of undergoing a siege by 8,000 French or capitulating
with full honours. Actually the revolutionary troops entered
with little delay, and the Bolognese Senate recalled its charge
d'affaires from Rome, to the sorrow of the Pope and his
Secretary of State. Nevertheless, the Cardinal Legate of
Bologna was instructed to exhort the inhabitants to be
perfectly calm and orderly, so that the French should meet
with no resistance.*
Meanwhile, after some initial difficulties, Azara's efforts
were rewarded.^ Bonaparte refused at first to regard him as
anything more than the representative of Spain, ^ and he then
demanded as a basic condition the conveyance to himself of all
the rights that would fall to him as master of the Capitol.
This led to heated altercations between the two politicians,
who were usually so unemotional, but they did not deter the
experienced Spaniard from waiting for a more favourable
moment.' For a time his hopes were lowered by the defection
of some Papal territories in the Romagna and by the traitorous
intrigues of revolutionary circles in Rome ; finally, however,
1 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, June 15, 1796 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome) ; *Pesaro to the Doge, May 21 and
June 18, 1796 (State Archives, Venice).
2 Seche, loc. cit., I., 181 seq.
3 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, June 22, 1796 {loc. cit.).
* Ibid.
^ Details in Richemont, La premiere rencontre dii Pape et de la
Rdpublique Franfaise, in Le Correspondant, CLXXXVIII. (1897),
803 seqq.
* Du Teil, loc. cit., 147.
' Ibid., 148.
THE ARMISTICE OF BOLOGNA 297
on June 23rd, 1796, an armistice was signed in Bologna
which did not inchide all the overweening demands of the
Corsican.
The signing of this agreement was attributed by many to
Azara's skilful inflexibility, by others to Bonaparte's con-
sideration for the Spanish Court in its role of mediator. Both
views were only partly correct, for Bonaparte had no intention
of signing an honourable truce as a step towards the con-
clusion of peace on the terms he had exacted ; his sole object
was to gain time for the execution of his tasks in northern
Italy before advancing into the heart of the peninsula.^ In
writing, therefore, to Madrid ^ that in spite of the hard terms
of the agreement the Spanish representative had saved
the Pope, religion, and Rome from ineluctable disaster,
Mendizabal, in the first flush of joy at Azara's success, was
o\'erstating the case. Azara, however, does deserve the credit
of having calmed the Roman population for the moment and
of having given it some grounds for hope.^ Unfortunately, the
authoritative members of the Curia were not active enough to
turn the moment to account ; the Pope, as nearly always, was
seriously unwell, and Zelada was too old. Consequently the
predominating influence was wielded by the fiscal Barberi.'*
The terms of the armistice of Bologna ^ were so harsh that
at best they produced only a short-lived feeling of relief that
by then Rome had been preserved from an even worse fate.
They had been agreed to only from fear of losing everything.
The Pope undertook to send a plenipotentiary to Paris without
delay, to conclude a formal peace, and he also promised to
apologize for the murder of Bassville and to free all political
^ Gendry, IL, 245 seq.
''On June 28, 1796 (Seche, I., 183).
' The Pope ordered a Triduum in thanksgiving (*Figari,
July 2, 1796 ; State Archives, Genoa).
* " *IVIgr. Barberi fiscal que es el omnipotente." (Mendizabal to
De la Paz, June 29, 1796 ; Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome).
^ Gendry, II., 246. *Pesaro to the Doge, June 26 and July 2,
1796 (State Archives, Venice).
298 HISTORY OF THE POPES
prisoners. His sovereignty over the States of the Church were
severely curtailed ; all the harbours were to remain open at all
times for French vessels but were to be closed to those of
France's enemies. The French were to evacuate the legation of
Ravenna but were to remain in possession of Bologna and
Ferrara and could occupy Ancona also within a week ; merely
on giving notice they could cross Papal territory at any time
they chose. The hardest provisions of all were those that laid
down the tribute to be paid : 21,000,000 scttdi were to be paid
in three instalments within three months, and 100 objects of
art and 500 manuscripts had to be surrendered, the details to
be fixed by a commission of French experts.
" In fine, we are still alive," was the comment on the
armistice made by Pius VI. when asking Mendizabal to convey
his thanks to the Spanish Government for their ambassador's
mediation.^ Honest attempts were made by Rome to satisfy
the French demands. To pay the first instalment of the tribute
700,000 scudi were drawn from the Sixtine treasure, ^ and on
July 6th a Papal circular letter was addressed to the Bishops
of the Papal States informing them of the decree of the
" Congregazione di Stato ", whereby all church valuables
except those that were absolutely indispensable were to be
collected and surrendered for the preservation of the Papal
States.^ Even ordinary citizens were urged to send in lists of
their valuables and hold themselves in readiness to part with
them.^ These measures, in Rome especially, occasioned further
indignation, which was a fertile soil for every kind of revolu-
tionary movement. It was known that various conspiracies
had been hatched during the preceding months, and now the
1 Mendizabal to De la Paz, July 6, 1796 (Sech6, I., 186).
* The Pope's *consistorial address on the subject, delivered on
June 27, 1796, in Epist., A" XXII./XXIII., fo. 43 ; Papal
Secret Archives. Cf. Tavanti, III., 181, and *Pesaro to the Doge,
July 2, 1796 {loc. cit.).
^ Gendry, II., 247. *Figari's report of July 9, 1796 (loc. cit.) ;
*Pesaro to the Doge, July 23, 1796 [loc. cit.).
•" MouRRET, VII., 254.
POPULAR DISCONTENT IN ROME 299
authorities were apprehensive of many more ; some were
actually exposed and the culprits were severely punished.^
There were outbursts of discontent among the people, generally
under cover of darkness ; in the morning posters and writings
were found on the walls. From time to time the manifestations
had to be quelled by force of arms. The molestation of the
French and their households increased to an alarming degree. ^
It was then that Bonaparte sent a blunt message to Rome
that if the Government did not see to the maintenance of law
and order he would come and take it in hand himself.^
In curious contrast to these revolutionary symptoms was the
storm of applause with which Azara was welcomed back as the
saviour of the city. In his report on the occasion he remarked
with pride : "I believe there was more noise than if a storm
had swept over the city." ^ For his successful efforts he
received the due meed of praise and thanks from his
Government.^
How little this unimaginative " enlightener " had at heart
the salvation and honour of the Holy See and the Patrimony
of St. Peter may be seen from the unconcealed contempt with
which he wrote of the pious belief and religious reverence of
the people,^ the manifestations of which were an essential
feature of the Roman scene at this critical juncture. In Azara's
judgment these pious fanatics were far more dangerous than
the open adherents of the Revolution who were plotting to
overthrow and plunder the city on their own account.''
1 Gendry, II., 2^8 seq., 252.
2 Azara to De la Paz, August 10, 1796 (Seche, L, ig^ seqq. ;
MouRRET, VII., 254).
^ Id. to id., August 24, 1796 (Seche, I., 198 5^^.).
* Id. to id., July 21, 1796, from Rome (not on the 20th, as given
by Seche, I., 189), ibid.
^ Thus, De la Paz in his letter to Azara of June 14, 1796. Cf. his
report of July 3, 1796 (Seche, I., 187).
^ *To De la Paz, August 17, 1796 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome). Cf. later reports, e.g. of February 3, 1797
(Seche, I., 266).
' *To De la Paz, July 21, 1796 (see above, n. 4).
300 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Actually at this time a large part of the population of the
Eternal City were borne along by a great wave of rehgious
fervour that expressed itself in numerous processions and other
ecclesiastical ceremonies. The whole of Italy was full of the
reports of the extraordinary happenings in the churches of
Rome, most notably with regard to the images of the Madonna,
whose eyes were said to have moved. ^ An amazing number of
people streamed into the churches. In July the Pope ordered
mission sermons to be preached and expiatory prayers to be
recited, accompanied by Benediction, in the six largest squares
in the city, with important indulgences for those who attended.^
The streets were full of pious pilgrims, many barefoot and
saying the rosary. As the days passed the supernatural
incidents increased in every part of the city. Mendizabal,
who was no free-thinker like his superior Azara, reported to
Madrid that now there were not many who denied what they
saw with their own eyes.^ He also reported that the preachers
had a calming effect on the excited populace and were trying
to remove the hatred felt for the French.*
It was soon evident that Bonaparte had no intention of
supplementing and completing the terms of the armistice by
concluding a speedy peace. At the beginning of July Azara
reported to his Government from Florence that the General
was interpreting the agreement in his own way, namely with
his customary brutality. He was occupying the whole of the
1 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, July 13, 1796 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome) ; *Figari, July 23, 1796 (State
Archives, Genoa). Cf. Richemont in Le Correspondant,
CLXXXVIII. (1897), 815 seqq.
2 " *Invito sagro per le sante missioni " issued by the Vicar-
General, Cardinal G. M. della Somaglia, of July 9, 1796, with an
account of the miracles and an announcement of the indulgences,
the six piazze, and the preachers (Archives of the Spanish Embassy
in Rome).
^ " *Pocos son los que niegan lo que ban visto con sus propios
oxos " (Mendizabal, July 13, 1796 ; ibid.).
'' Ibid., a full description. Nevertheless, Azara afterwards made
them out to be popular agitators.
THE EXECUTION OF THE ARMISTICE TERMS 30I
Romagna and was levying contributions from it ; and
any outbursts on the part of the oppressed inhabitants would
be welcomed by him as occasions for further reprisals.^ The
Romagna was, in fact, laid waste with fire and sword, so that
Azara thought that all his previous efforts would be wasted
unless Napoleon was brought to heel by the French Directory.
" Whether this happens or not," he wrote, " I foresee that all
the States of the Church and Rome itself will be destroyed." ^
At the beginning of August, 1796, he referred to Bonaparte
as a man who breathed only blood and fire.^
On July 21st, after the excitement in Rome had subsided to
some extent,* the French commissary Miot arrived in the city
to execute the provisions of the armistice.^ Remembering
Bassville's fate, he made no appearance in public except when
accompanied by Azara. ^ A revealing light is thrown on the
Spanish ambassador who, still representing the Papal interests,
sat on the opposite side of the table to the Frenchman during
the negotiations, by the admission he made to his Government
on August 3rd that at the moment he was the only person in
Rome to support the French. '^ Miot was soon replaced by
Cacault, who had been commissioned to represent the Republic
1 Azara to De la Paz, July 3, 1796 (Seche, I., 188 seq.).
2 Ibid., 187.
^ " *E1 general Bonaparte que no respira sine sangre y fuego "
(Azara to De la Paz, August 3, 1796, from Rome {loc. cit.).
■* The Pope himself assured Azara that there was no danger in
the popular agitation, which Azara had described to him in the
most lurid colours (Azara to De la Paz, July 21, 1796 ; Seche,
I., 191). Afterwards there was a moment when the commissaries
were thinking of leaving, for fear of an attack on their lives.
(Mendizabal to De la Paz, September 21, 1796 ; ibid., 214.)
^ Azara to De la Paz, July 27, 1796 {ibid., 193 seq.) ; Du Teil,
320.
"He also dined with Azara daily (see *Figari, July 30, 1796;
State Archives, Genoa).
'"*... contra estos Franceses y aun contra mi, que soi
ahora el unico que los apoia aqui." (To De la Paz, August 3,
1796 ; Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome.)
302 HISTORY OF THE POPES
in Rome in 1793 but had not been recognized by the Vatican.^
Azara, who already knew of him through his diplomatic
activities in Naples, distrusted his vivacious temperament,
but after Cacault had moved from Florence to Rome he hoped
to exert a calming influence on him.^ By the middle of August
the work of the art experts had advanced so far that Cacault
was able to send to Paris a list of the hundred most valuable
sculptures and paintings that were to be deUvered.^
That the representatives of the French Repubhc were able
to show themselves in public at this time of extraordinary
popular excitement, without incurring any serious danger, was
due principally to the measures taken by the Papal
Government. On July 13th strict regulations were issued by
Zelada for the protection of the commissaries.^ After being
reminded that they should be thankful that the occupation of
their city had been averted by the armistice and that there
were hopes of a speedy and final peace, the inhabitants of
Rome were commanded to show towards the stranger such
principles of their religion as hospitality, the law of nations,
trust in the pubhc authority, respect for the arrangements
agreed upon in treaties, regard for the mediation of Spain, and
the attention of the individual citizen to the maintenance of
pubhc order. Wherefore the commissaries were to be respected
and treated with courtesy by everyone. The slightest molesta-
tion of their persons or those of other members of their nation
1 *Pesaro to the Doge, July 30, 1796 (State Archives, Venice).
Cf. A. RuBiNo, loc. cit., XIV., 177. Figari's *reports of August 6
(State Archives, Genoa) : Gendry, II, 250.
2 *To De la Paz, August 3, 1796 {loc. cit.).
^ On August 5, 1796, he sent Azara a provisional list with fifty
items {Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 447 seqq.) ; on August 3 he had
reported on the work done by the experts {ibid., 447). The final
list {ibid., 461-7) was received by Delacroix on August 15. For the
packing and the transport arrangements, ibid., 467, 469, 471, 478.
* Not, as Tavanti (298) says, on July 18. The text was attached
to Mendizabal's *report of July 13, 1796 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome). Cf. *Figari's report of July 16, 1796 (State
Archives, Genoa), and *Pesaro's to the Doge, of July 16, 1796
(State Archives, Venice).
THE POPE S APPEAL TO THE FRENCH CATHOLICS 303
would be regarded as hostility towards the fatherland and as
rebellion and would be punished by death, the confiscation of
the culprit's property, and the permanent loss of his good
name. It was the duty of the authorities to exercise the most
scrupulous control and of every individual to report without
reserve any infringement of these regulations. Failure to obey
this last regulation would be punished by ten years in the
galleys, whereas for every information laid the informer would
be rewarded by 500 saidi from the Apostolic Camera.
No time was lost in carrying out the first of the provisions
laid down in the agreement : the appointment of an agent to go
to Paris. The person selected for the duty was Pieracchi, the
former auditor to the nunciature to France, whose ability was
universally esteemed.^ He travelled by the quickest route,
calling at Florence to receive detailed directions from Azara.^
With Evangelisti as his secretary he reached the capital on
July 22nd. The time of his arrival was not inopportune, as
religious life in Paris was reviving.
Printed copies, to the number of 2,000, of a Papal Brief of
July 5th, the contents of which had been temporarily withheld
in Rome, were sent after the Papal representative, who was to
distribute them in Paris if circumstances permitted.^ This
Brief had been suggested by Bonaparte in Bologna. It was an
appeal by the Pope to the French Catholics to submit to the
political authority, for it had the divine sanction. It spoke
of the heavy but just punishments, both temporal and eternal,
incurred by those who failed to observe the law, and it there-
fore urgently exhorted the Catholics to obey the Government
with all possible zeal and willingness. They were thus to show
1 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, June 29, 1796 (loc. cit.) ; Du Teil,
195-
2 Du Teil, 206. On pp. 237 seqq. is an account of how the Brief
originated.
' *Mendizabal to De la Paz, July 13, 1796 [loc. cit.). For the
Brief, cf. Du Teil, 236 seqq. ; Pisani, III., 95 seq. ; ihid., 109 seq.,
the text. Du Teil (240) is doubtful if Pieracchi ever received the
missive.
304 HISTORY OF THE POPES
that the true faith had no intention of destroying civil laws —
a fact of which the French Government had to be convinced.
No mention of this Brief was made by Pieracchi when pre-
sented to the French Foreign Minister Delacroix on July 25th/
possibly because he had not yet been informed of it, but by
indirect means it soon came to the knowledge of the Minister
and the general public. ^ Government circles were so surprised
to find it contained a Papal recognition of the Republic that at
first there was doubt about the authenticity of the document
and Cacault was asked to confirm it.^ Some Catholics, too,
were greatly taken aback and hvely arguments ensued about
the difference between the usurped and legitimate authority
of the State and the duty of obeying it.* Doubtless by making
this concession the Pope had hoped to anticipate the demand
of the French Government, which would surely have required
its recognition as the very first condition of peace.
The talks between Pieracchi and Delacroix were not begun
till August 13th, and after only a few days they came to a
dead end. One of the first basic demands set out by Delacroix
was the formal recantation of all Papal statements and docu-
ments relating to the French State since 1789.^ This would not
only have compromised the Holy See's ecclesiastico-political
position but would also have been an admission that it had
followed the wrong course in the confusion of the Revolution.
Had such concessions been made by the Pope they would have
set at nought all the martyrdoms under the Reign of Terror
and all the injustices taken on themselves by the exiles and
prisoners. The solitary rock that had stood firm in a raging sea,
when men were casting off the bonds of God and justice, would
have been set tottering, and the principles of the Revolution
^ Gendry, II., 250 seq.
2 In Le Redacteur of September 4 ; Du Teil, 240 seq.
^ Seche, I., 23 ; PiSANi, III., 100.
* S:i£ch:^, I., 25 seqq. ; Pisani, III., 99, loi seqq. For the
jubilation of the Constitutionals, ibid., 106 seqq.
■' Seche, I., 31 ; De la Gorge, V., 27 seqq. ; Surrel, Le card.
Laurent Galeppi, in La Semaine de Rome, II. (1909), 320 seqq. ;
Du Teil, 219 seqq.
ROMAN-FRENCH NEGOTIATIONS BROKEN OFF 305
would have won the most resounding victory imaginable. No
such retreat was possible for the Church. Pieracchi tried to
discover some way of adjusting the dispute that might have
been acceptable to Rome, but soon had to give up all hope of
this, as he was not given the slightest encouragement by the
other side. Finally, he asked if he might send a courier to the
Pope with a message on the subject. This request afforded the
Directory the welcome opportunity of breaking off the
negotiations altogether.^ The Foreign Minister expressed to
the Papal representative his displeasure at Rome sending a
plenipotentiary who had no real powers ; one was not disposed
to treat with persons whose powers failed at the first point of
discussion. Shortly afterwards the Directory issued an order
of expulsion, dated August 14th, against Pieracchi, which was
delivered to him on the 17th and with which he complied on
the 20th. He withdrew at first to Switzerland. ^
Pieracchi's mission and the attempt to initiate peace
negotiations between Paris and Rome, as had been demanded
at Bologna, were thus frustrated by the anti-clerical attitude of
the Directory and its Foreign Minister. When a report on the
break-down of the negotiations was rendered by Pius VI. to
the College of Cardinals, every member, on being questioned,
replied that so outrageous a demand could only be
refused.^
Azara, seeing that the result of his diplomatic skill was
threatened with ruin, tried to induce the Pope to view the
matter in a less rigorous light. At first he tried his hand with
philological subtleties about the meaning of the word
" rehgion " in French ; he then suggested that there was no
need for the Pope to withdraw the purport and the principles
of his utterances regarding France, but only their proclama-
tion, which could not injure either dogma or his personal
^ Gendry, II., 250 seq.
* Azara to De la Paz, August 31, 1796 (Seche, I., 201 seq.) ;
*Pesaro to the Doge, September 3, 1796 {loc. cit.). Cf. A. Rubino
(loc. cit.), XIV., 180 seq. ; De la Gorce, V., 32.
8 Seche, loc. cit.
306 HISTORY OF THE POPES
reputation.^ The Dominican General Quinones agreeing that
this solution was theologically unobjectionable, Azara pro-
pounded it to the Pope in a memorandum just before the
decisive meeting of the Congregation of Cardinals. But Pius
remained unmoved ^ ; now that there was no longer any hope
of avoiding the worst extremity, his courage and decisiveness
increased. He was quite certain now that the rapacious
Bonaparte would occupy Rome and the whole of the Papal
States. When this took place, he averred, he would pre-
ferably face his destiny in Rome, but in response to all the
entreaties that were made of him and for the sake of the
Church, which would probably be threatened with a schism
were he to die, he would allow himself to be persuaded, if the
worst came to the worst, to take refuge in Spanish territory,
along with his most faithful Cardinals. To this implied appeal
for help, Azara gave an evasive answer. In effect it was a
refusal, as the Pope knew very well. He now said that as
Germany and Naples might also be invaded by the French he
was thinking of Malta as a refuge.^
In August, 1796, when the attempts to effect a settlement
with France had failed, the Cardinal Secretary of State Zelada
took the opportunity of asking the Pope to relieve him of his
duties. He was moved to take this step, he said, on account of
his age — he was now eighty years old — and his physical
enfeeblement. The Pope gave his consent and appointed in
his place Cardinal Busca, formerly nuncio to Belgium and
a friend of Azara's.'*
1 His letter to the Pope of August 27, 1796, in Seche, I.,
206 seqq. Cf. ibid., 60 seqq. ^
2 Azara reported the whole affair to Do la Paz on August 31,
1796 {ibid., 202 seq.).
^ Ibid., 203 seq.
* Gendry, II., 251 seq. Busca assumed his duties with such
independence that the members of the Congregazione di Stato
considered themselves slighted (" L'attivita, colla quale il nuovo
Segretario di Stato si presta alle ispezioni del suo ufficio con-
centrando unicamente in s6 solo e nella volonta del Papa la
conoscenza e spcdizione degli affari li piu importanti, non ricsce
RESUMPTION OF NEGOTIATIONS 307
Further negotiations took place in Florence, the French
Government being represented by Garrau and Salicetti.^
Any opportunity that offered a prospect of solving the crisis
was gladly accepted by the Curia. Monsignore Caleppi, an
experienced nuncio, was appointed by the Pope to represent
him, and the Dominican Soldati was to accompany him as
secretary.2 Owing to their knowledge of the previous negotia-
tions, Evangelisti and Azara were also of the party. The latter
only consented after a show of reluctance due, as he said, to
Rome's ingratitude towards him after the work he had done
at Bologna. Actually he had long been waiting in silence for
this invitation, and when it came he proudly informed his
Government that the Pope had begged him with tears in his
eyes to come to his assistance.^ On August 31st Pius VI.
informed the Spanish king of Azara's new mission and asked
him to continue his protection of the Church.^
On September 9th, the day following its arrival in the Tuscan
capital, the Papal commission was handed a complete draft of
the peace treaty by the French representatives, with the
intimation that there were only two alternatives : complete
acceptance or complete refusal.^ Thus, once again all hopes
di soddisfazione ai cardinal! della Congregazione di State." They
wanted to resign, but it was not long before the Congregation
was dissolved. (Pesaro to the Doge, August 20, 1796; State
Archives, Venice.)
1 For these two, see Seche, I., 50, n. i.
2 The *Briefs to the Grand Duke Ferdinand and the Grand
Duchess, of September 3, 1796, announced Caleppi's delegation
and asked for their support in so momentous an affair {Epist.,
A° XXII./XXIII. ; Papal Secret Archives). An account of the
negotiations based on Caleppi's report was given by Richemont
in Le Correspondant, CLXXXVIII. (1897), 821 seqq. ; cf. Surrel,
Galeppi, loc. cit., 323 seqq. Cf. *Lavaggi's report of September 3,
1796 (State Archives, Genoa). Figari's death was *reported by
Lavaggi on November 5, 1797 (ibid.).
^ Seche, I., 63, 201, 205 ; Gendry, II., 259 seq.
* Seche, I., 208 seqq.
^ Du Teil, 350; *Pesaro to the Doge, September 17, 1796
{loc. cit.). Cf. A. RuBiNO, loc. cit., 182.
308 HISTORY OF THE POPES
of discussion were excluded, and naturally Caleppi insisted on
first consulting the Pope before replying. The short time he
was given to consider his reply he utilized in journeying back
to Rome. Rumours about the harsh and unacceptable con-
ditions were already abroad there, but it was not until
Caleppi's arrival on September I'ith that the Pope could
summon a General Congregation, in which about twenty
Cardinals took part.^
The Sacred College was unanimous in rejecting the French
demands, for not only did they include for the second time the
withdrawal of all the Papal edicts against the Revolution, but
on several other counts the honour and the rights of the
Church were impugned.^ There w^ere two other preposterous
conditions : that the temporal power of the Pope should be
restricted by the appointment of French officials and that the
payment of tribute should continue as long as the French were
at war, in other words there was to be no limit to it.^ Even
Azara found these conditions unjust and acknowledged that
they would mean the break-up of the Papal States.*
The Pope's written reply, which Caleppi subsequently pre-
sented in Florence ^ and was countersigned by Azara after some
misgiving,^ was couched throughout in a firm tone and showed
^ *Pesaro {loc. cit.) ; Gendry, II., 261 ; Richemont, loc. cit.,
830 seqq.
^ Mendizabal to De la Paz, September 23, 1796 (Seche, I.,
220), and *Lavaggi on September 17, 1796 {loc. cit.). According to
♦Mendizabal's report of September 14 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome) eighteen or nineteen Cardinals took part in the
Congregation, the result of which was kept secret at first in Rome,
" aunque la creo negativa." For the attitudes adopted by the
individual members, sec Richemont, loc. cit., 831.
^ Extract from the terms in Seche, L, 70, n. i. The terms were
enclosed in *Pesaro's report to the Doge, of September 17, 1796
(State Archives, Venice).
^ To De la Paz, September 23, 1796 (Seche, I., 217 seq.).
* The text of his letter of September 14, 1796, ibid., 71 seqq.
« Azara to De la Paz, September 23, 1796, from Florence, ibid.,
216 seq. His signature was not at first recognized by the French.
Richemont, loc. cit., 832.
REJECTION OF THE FRENCH DEMANDS 309
how the Pope's courage and decisiveness increased the more
closely he was pressed by the enemies of the Church. The
document ended with a gloomy prophecy of what was to
come : His Holiness would never be a party to such a defama-
tion of the Church, even if his own life were in peril. ^
In the weeks that followed the utmost political excitement
and tension prevailed in Rome. The arrogant demands of the
French were published by the Pope and communicated to
many of the European courts.^ Indignation at Bonaparte's
insatiability increased all over Italy, so that the prospect was
very grave. ^ The natural result of the French action was that
the Pope declared the armistice to be broken and he suspended
the stipulated payments. The statues that had been packed
up were to be returned to their former situations.* Among the
many diplomatic negotiations that went on at this time, the
most developed were those between Rome and Naples ; in
the course of time they showed signs of resulting in a defensive
alliance, and this after an interval of eighteen years during
which they had had no relations with each other. ^ The
question of military co-operation was discussed in Rome by
the Marchese Vasto, representing Naples, while the other
points of difference between the two states were put aside to
be settled amicably within a given period.^ A discordant note,
however, was suddenly introduced into the talks by the news
that a treaty had been concluded between the Neapolitans and
the French ; this, to everyone's surprise, was hurriedly
1 Gendry, II., 262.
- Ihid., 264. Tavanti, 300 seq., for Pius VI. 's appeals for help
to the Princes and his ill-success.
^ The war fever in Rome was described by Mendizabal on
September 28, 1796 (Seche, 222). In his *report of September 14
he enclosed a satire on the subject which had been posted up
in the Piazza Colonna (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome).
* Seche, I., 222 seq. Pesaro to the Doge, Sept. 24, 1796 (State
Archives, Venice). ^Gendry, II., 266.
* Seche, I., 223, and Azara on October 7, 1796 {ibid., 228) ;
*Pesaro to the Doge, October 8, 1796 [loc. cit.).
310 HISTORY OF THE POPES
ratified in Naples.^ Vasto complained that his position had
been compromised by the game that had been played behind
his back. 2 The negotiations were continued in spite of this
sensational change in the situation, but they led to no tangible
result.^ While they were going on the Auditor-General of the
Camera, Monsignor Giuseppe Albani, sought to effect a close
aUiance with the Emperor by means of conversations in
Vienna and to induce him to support the Pope with all the
forces at his command.* Much, too, was expected of
England, which had sent Graves ^ as a plenipotentiary.
The agitation within the State was even greater, culminating
in the Government's feverish activity and the general mobiliza-
tion of the country.^ The comprehensive defence of the State
1 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, October 26, 1796 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome) ; *Lavaggi on October 29, 1796
(State Archives, Genoa) ; Gendry, II., 269 seq. The origin of the
treaty in Du Teil, 258 seqq., the signature of October 10, ibid.,
287 ; ibid., 537, the text. The " internuncio " Salamonin Paris was
apprised of it on the day of the signature (Bridier, Memoires,
237 seq.). Cf. *Pesaro to the Doge, October 15, 22, 29, 1796
{loc. cit.) ; A. RuBiNO, 41 seqq.
2 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, December 14, 1796 (loc. cit.).
^ Id. to id., November 2, 1796, and January 11 and 18, 1797
(Seche, I., 231 seq., 247 seq., 253) ; *Pesaro to the Doge,
October 29, 1796 (loc. cit.).
* " *Ahora aqui todos se muestran alegres y animosos porque
cuentan que el Emperador entre en aleanza con el papa." This
opinion was based on Albani's reports of Imperial reinforcements.
Mendizabal to De la Paz, January 4, 1797 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome). Albani's mission to Vienna was
announced in *Briefs of October 8, 1796, to the Emperor and to
Thugut {Epist., Ao XXII., fos. 74, 78 ; Papal Secret Archives)
Cf. Lavaggi's *report of October 22, 1796 (State Archives, Genoa)
and *Pesaro to the Doge, October 8, 1796 (State Archives, Venice)
' For his audience and for Albani's mission and departure, see
♦Mendizabal to De la Paz on October 5 and 12, 1796 (loc. cit.)
*Pesaro to the Doge, December 31, 1796 [loc. cit.). Cf. A. Rubino,
loc. cit., XV., 52.
* For the popular rejoicing at the prospect of war, see *Pesaro
to the Doge on October i, 1796 {loc. cit.).
MOBILIZATION IN THE PAPAL STATES 3II
was organized and all able to bear arms were called to the
colours. The municipal officials were given military powers
and the payment of the troops was put in order. The most
radical step was the setting up of a citizen army [milizia
civile). This new organization was confirmed by a proclama-
tion of September 28th, ^ its purpose being the maintenance of
order and the strengthening of the regular troops. The
" Senatore di Roma " was placed at its head, and volunteers
were invited to report to the chiefs of the " rioni ". The Pope,
it was said in this proclamation, relied on the loyalty and the
ardour of his subjects and on the world-famous patriotism of
the Romans.^ These auxiliary troops were to be respected and
recognized as fully as the regular army. In a short time the
enrolment of volunteers and the supply of equipment reached
a gratifying level, the Roman nobility playing a prominent
part.^ Almost inevitably these untrained and in many cases
1 *Notificazione of September 28, 1796, the third enclosure in
Mendizabal's *report of the same day {loc. cit.). The report is in
Seche (I., 221 seq.), who was unable to discover the enclosures
{cf. ibid., 332). This order, which was signed by Busca, contains
the organization of every two to three Rioni into five battalions
of five to seven companies each, also the names of the officers.
Further preparations and decrees were reported by *Pesaro to the
Doge on October 8, 1796 {loc. cit.). Cf. A. Rubino, loc. cit., XV.,
40 seq.
2 " *Conta principalmente il Santo Padre nella fedelta e nello
zelo de'suoi amatissimi sudditi e piu particolarmente nel
patriotismo, di cui tanto lodevolmente si pregia il popolo di
Roma " {loc. cit.).
^ Cf." *Nota delle offerte presentate al comando generate a tutto
il di 6 ottobre corrente," enclosed in Mendizabal's report of
October 12, 1796 {loc. cit.). It contains, for example, the following
items : " Contestabile Colonna : un regimento di fanteria di
12 compagnie di fucilieri e 2 di granatieri, vestito ed armato. —
Marchese Luigi Ercolani : scudi 450 al mese durante Tarmamento
per soldo di uno compagnia di 100 teste. — Banchieri Torlonia :
una compagnia di cavalleria di 80 teste, vestita, armata e fornita
di cavalli : ed offre la sua persona e il ministero del suo banco
gratis." There were twenty-four offers in all. — A few days later
312 HISTORY OF THE POPES
undisciplined militiamen caused a great deal of trouble and
disappointed many hopes, so that it was found necessary to
introduce reforms.^ At the end of November the new militia,
under the command of their general, paraded in the atrium of
St. Peter's before the Holy Father, who expressed his great
satisfaction with it.^ Similarly, the blessing of the colours of
the various formations of both regular and auxiliary forces
were made occasions of solemn ceremonial and the whole city
was pervaded by a military atmosphere.^
Naturally, in these circumstances the position of the
foreigners in Rome became increasingly uneasy. Before long,
the Spaniards felt themselves as insecure as the French in the
general confusion of the situation, and were at a loss as to
what attitude to adopt. ^ The popular excitement was further
heightened by the rumour, which in spite of the desires of
many persons in Vienna and Naples did not come true, that
the Pope was about to declare a Holy War on Bonaparte
and was already having Bulls and Briefs of excommunication
printed.^ It was at this juncture that the French applied for
there appeared a " Nota seconda delle offerte " (see *Pesaro to
the Doge on October 15, 1796 ; State Archives, Venice).
^Mendizabal to De la Paz, November 2, 1796 (Seche, I., 234),
and *November 16, 1796 (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome) .
2 *Id. to id., November 23, 1796 {ibid.).
3 " In hoc signo vinces " was the device on their standards
(Mendizabal, January 21, 1797 ; Seche, L, 246 ; similarly Azara
on January 13, 1797, ibid., 250) ; *Lavaggi on January 7, 1797
(State Archives, Genoa). For the swearing-in of the Colonna
Regiment, cf. *Pesaro to the Doge on January 14, 1797 (State
Archives, Venice). Cf. A. Rubino, loc. cit., XV., no.
* The predicament in which his compatriots were also placed
was *reported by Mendizabal on September 14, 1796 : " Los
Espanolcs en Roma hoi dia estamos quasi en la misma categoria
que los Franceses y nos llaman por no saber que decir Jacobins
y fautores suyos " {loc. cit.). Cf. Azara on October 7, 1796
(Seche, I., 229).
^ *Mendizabal to De la Paz, October 5, 1796, and January 4,
1797 {loc. cit.). " *Molto sensato e giusto e stato il discorso
THE PAPAL ARMY INCREASED 313
their passports to be got ready for departure, and soon after-
wards they left Rome/ with the exception of Cacault, who
stayed on for some time longer.^
The Papal army in the meantime had been considerably
increased, and by January was 12,000 strong. Detachments
were already being dispatched to defend the frontiers of the
Papal States. From November onwards particular attention
was paid to the defence of the Romagna.^ As the result of
requests made by Albani, the services of General Colli, an
officer in the Austrian army, were secured for the supreme
command of the Papal forces. Landing at Ancona with
several other officers,^ he went first to the headquarters at
Imola,^ then to Rome, where he was given a jubilant reception
and was paid the highest honours. He was feted, reported
fattole dair Imperatore relativamente alia guerra di religione, ma
non e totalmente vero che non possa esservi piu luogo a dichiararla,
poiche se i Francesi venissero ad attaccare la Sede ed il centre
della religione, non sarebbe mal fondata la determinazione di
dichiarare ad essi per questo oggetto la guerra. Non siamo
ancora a questo caso, ma non lascia di farmi sorpresa che ora si
parli costa con tanta freddezza di una guerra che prima con
tanto ardore si richiedeva." (Busca to the nuncio Albani,
February 4, 1797 ; Nunziat. di Germania, 696, Papal Secret
Archives.) Pesaro also *reported to the Doge on the Pope's mis-
givings about a war of religion on October i, 1796, and on Vienna's
insistence *on January 7, 1797 {loc. cit.). Cf. A. Rubino, loc. cii.,
XV.. 39. III.
^ Mendizabal to De la Paz, September 28, 1796 (Seche, I., 224).
2" *La repugnancia de Cacault a partir de aqui sin que se le
mande de una o de otra parte." (Mendizabal to De la Paz,
October 5, 1796 ; Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome.)
3 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, November 16, 1796 {ibid.). On
November 23 he *reported that there were 10,000 men there
ready to retake Bologna and Ferrara (ibid.). *Lavaggi on
November 26 and December 17, 1796 {loc. cit.) ; *Pesaro to the
Doge, December 31, 1796, and January 7, 1797 {loc. cit.).
* Mendizabal to De la Paz, December 28, 1796 (Seche, I.,
245 seq.).
^ Azara to De la Paz, January 20, 1797 {ibid., 255).
314 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Mendizabal, as though he had already conquered the
French.^
While the Neapolitans and the English were doing their
best to influence pubUc opinion in Italy by the dissemination
of war news of all kinds unfavourable to the French ^ Bonaparte
made another attempt to achieve his purpose without the
shedding of blood. This time he made use of Cardinal Mattel,
who on Papal instructions had taken up his quarters at
Ferrara as Vice-Legate and Governor, since according to the
treaty the Romagna was to be handed back to the Papal
States.^ Bonaparte held him hostage in Brescia, and now
Mattel had to go to Rome on the French behalf to urge once
more the acceptance of Bonaparte's conditions for peace.*
Probably Bonaparte hoped in this way to avoid being attacked
simultaneously by the Papal States, Naples, and Austria, and
possibly also England. Mattel's efforts failed, however, as the
majority of the Sacred College had formed itself into a war
party under the leadership of Cardinal Albani, and reckoned
on strong support from the Emperor. ^ Bonaparte also used
Cacault as an intermediary. He gave him full powers to treat
with the Papal Government on the basis, it need hardly be
^ The Cardinal Secretary of State went to meet him and con-
ducted him to the Pope in the Vatican. (Mendizabal to De la
Paz, January 25, 1797 ; ibid., 256 seq.). In a *Brief of February 4,
1797, he was officially appointed supreme commander of all the
Papal troops, subordinate only to the Pope and the Secretary of
State. {Epist., A" XXII., fo. 110 seqq. ; Papal Secret Archives.)
Cf. *Pesaro to the Doge, January 21, 1797 (State Archives,
Venice).
2 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, October 12, 19, 26, 1796 {loc. cit.).
^ Azara to De la Paz, August 24, 1796 (Seche, I., 199). Cf. ibid.,
58, and Gendry, II., 256 seq.
* *Mendizabal to De la Paz, November 9, 1796 [loc. cit.) ;
♦Lavaggi on October 29, 1796 {loc. cit.) ; *Pesaro to the Doge on
October 29, 1796 {loc. cit.). Cf. A. Rubino, loc. cit., XV., 46,
Gendry, II., 267 seqq.
^ Mendizabal to De la Paz, November 2 and 30, 1796 (Seche, I.;
232 56^., 239) ; *Pesaro to the Doge, November 5, 1796 (State
Archives, Venice) ; cf. Rubino, XV., 47.
THE ROMANS MISLED BY FALSE REPORTS 315
said, of the aforesaid peace conditions. Cacault accordingly
put himself in touch with the Secretary of State, Busca,^
and the Pope convened a Congregation which, before entering
into any further negotiations, demanded fresh proposals from
the French Directory. On this occasion, too, a stubborn
opposition was offered by Albani's party, so that Cacault was
made to wait several weeks for an answer.^ Finally, on
January 22nd, Bonaparte ordered him to leave Rome within
six hours. Cacault, whose removal from Rome had long been
urged by the Emperor, retired to Florence.^ Finally, even
Azara, usually so self-confident. Was at a loss as to which side
to take.*
The war fever in Rome and the Papal States was increased
by the continual news of victories won by the Imperial
troops over Bonaparte, though most of these reports proved to
be false. But the Roman people believed what they wanted to
be true ; even educated Romans were misled by reports that
had been purposely falsified, whereas practically no attention
was paid to the correct ones that told of Bonaparte's victorious
advance.^ After various bodies of troops had set out with the
1 *Mendizabal to the De la Paz, November 9, 1796 (Archives of
the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
2 *Id. to id., November 16 and 23 and December 21 (there had
been no reply for forty days !), 1796 {ibid.), also on December 28,
1796 (Seche, I., 245) ; *Lavaggi on December 31, 1796 (State
Archives, Genoa).
3 Mendizabal to De la Paz on January 11 and February i, 1797
(Seche, I., 247, 262) ; Azara on January 20 and 27 and
February 3, 1797 {ibid., 255 seq., 261 seq., 26 j seq.) ; *Pesaro to
the Doge, January 7 and 28, 1797 {loc. cit. ; cf. A. Rubino,
loc. cit., XV., Ill, 113). In the latter dispatch was enclosed a
♦note from Cacault to Pesaro about his departure. Bonaparte's
letter was published by Richemont {loc. cit., 839 seq.).
^ Azara to De la Paz, October 7, 1796 (Seche, I., 227).
5 For the remarkable difficulty experienced by the Romans in
believing any report favourable to the French, see Mendizabal's
♦report of November 16, 1796 (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome) ; similarly, his *report of November 23, 1796 {ibid.),
for the treaty between Naples and Paris and Bonaparte's victories.
3l6 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Pope's blessing, the first military encounters with the French
took place at the beginning of 1797. On January 31st
Bonaparte declared war on the Papal States by means of a
proclamation.! After several victories had been gained over
the Austrians 2 the fortunes of war continued to favour the
Revolutionary army in the Papal States. After the first battle,
on the Senio, it occupied Faenza ^ and then Ancona, where
Colli just managed to save himself by taking to flight. Here the
Cf. *Pesaro to the Doge on January 21, 1797 [loc. cit.), and
Azara to De la Paz on November 2, 1796 (" les Remains ne
voulaient nullement y croire " ; Seche, I., 230). Cf. ibid., 233
(Mendizabal on November 2, 1796), 238 (on November 30, 1796),
261 (Azara on January 27, 1797), and 265 (Mendizabal on
February i, 1797).
iGendry, II., 271 ; A. RuBiNO, loc. cit., XV., 113. " *Questa
invasione dello stato pontificio e stata eseguita dai Francesi
senza darne antecedentemente alcun avviso ; soltanto dopo aver
gia effettuata Tinvasione della Romagna publico il generale
Bonaparte colle stampe una raccolta di scritture coUe quali rende
ragione delle sue mosse." This from a report, partly in cipher,
from the Cardinal Secretary of State to the nuncio Litta on
February 25, 1797. (Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A, Papal Secret
Archives.)
2 " *i Francesi hanno riportato una regolata vittoria dall'Armata
Austriaca in Italia .. . . Bonaparte ha gia diviso la sua armata,
come vedra dall'annesso foglio scrittomi da Msgr. Nuncio in
Venezia, ed una porzione e destinata per noi, ne credo che questa
volta la cosa si riduca a sola minaccia, perche I'improvvisa
partenza di M. Cadault da questa capitale e il lampo foriero del
tuono." (Busca to Albani in Vienna, January 28, 1797 ; Nunziat.
di Germania, 696, ibid.) For the further advance, see Busca's
third *dispatch of February 4, 1797, to Albani [ibid.).
^ " *A1 loro [the French] ingresso nello stato pontif. la nostra
troppa trovavasi accostante (?) in Faenza, si batte bravamente
con loro ; ma soverchiata dal magglor numero e non assistita
dalle masse de' paesani, dalle quali si aspettava soccorso, parte
rest5 sbandata e parte prigioniera. o morta sul campo." (Busca to
Litta, February 11, 1797 ; Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A ; loc. cit.)
Cf. Gendry, II., 272.
NO HOPE FROM VIENNA OR NAPLES 317
Republic of Ancona was set up.^ Then, at Loreto, what was
left of the great pilgrimage treasure was plundered.^ In most
cases the inhabitants of the towns, mindful of the Corsican's
threat to punish any armed resistance with fire and plunder,
surrendered the keys of the town gates without striking
a blow.^
In the first weeks of February the ill-tidings had to be taken
seriously, even in Rome, where it was realized that the hopes
that had been set on Vienna and Naples were not to be fulfilled ^
and that the military situation was rapidly becoming hopeless.
Even Colli despaired of saving the Romagna or of regaining it.^
Congregations of Cardinals followed one after the other, their
deliberations for the most part being withheld from the
public.^ Heated disputes took place between the war party,
under Albani, and the peace party, under Antici, the former
being in a slight majority. '^ The news of the fall of Mantua
1 Azara to De la Paz, February 18, 1797 (Seche, I., 275 ; cf.
ibid., 90).
^ Ibid., 276; Gendry, II., 274; MouRRET, VII., 255.
* G. Garavani, Urbino e il suo territorio nel periodo franQese
1794-1814, Urbino, 1906, in particular I., ^^ seqq., though the
author failed to make use here of important *documents in the
Archiepiscopal Archives at Urbino. Cf. Bollettino diocesano di
Urbino, IX. (1922), 34 seqq., 55 seqq., 75 seqq.
* *Busca to the nuncio Albani in Vienna, third dispatch of
February 4, 1797 (Nunziat. di Germania, 696, loc. cit.).
'" " *I1 bravo generale Colli mettendo a profitto quel poco che e
preparato dall'inattivita ed ignoranza del passato comando
militare, ha gia date e dara dell disposizioni per salvarci. Ma ci
salvercmo ? II lo spero, ma ne temo." (Busca to Albani,
January 28, 1797 ; Nunziat. di Germania, 696, loc. cit.)
* The question of the Pope's saving himself by taking to flight
was also discussed, the King of Naples having offered his capital
as a place of refuge. (*Busca to Litta, February 11, 1797;
Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A, loc. cit.)
' Mendizabal to De la Paz, February 8, 1797 (Seche, I., 272).
The report was accompanied by a " *Nota de los cardenales que
asistieron a la congregacion general delante del papa y votaron
por la paz y por la guerra " (Archives of the Spanish Embassy
3l8 HISTORY OF THE POPES
caused great dismay, high hopes having been held of its
resistance/ but the acme of consternation was reached when
Colh reported that he could no longer rely on the loyalty of hiis
troops, who would refuse to follow him any further.^ At
a decisive meeting of the Sacred College, held on the night of
February 11th, it was resolved to empower General Colli to
ask for an armistice and to convey the Pope to a place of
safety, the place selected being Terracina, on the Neapohtan
frontier.^ All preparations were made, and even the people
were expecting the Pope's departure. Other highly placed
persons, both clerical and lay, also made ready for flight. But
Pius VI. stood firm and refused to listen to any such suggestion,
just as he had done in September, 1796, when the Spaniards
had placed a frigate at his disposal.^ In his acute distress his
strong faith in God came to his support.^
On the following day the members of the Sacred College
agreed among themselves to send a delegation to Bonaparte,
consisting of Cardinal Mattel, Duke Braschi, Caleppi, and
in Rome) : " Per esta fueron los siguientes : Albani, Duque
de York, Carafa, Antonelli, Doria, Zelada, Somaglia, Altieri ;
Pignatelli, Roverella, Rinuccini : se duda del veto de estos :
Gerdil : este dixo al dar su vote, que se creeria hereje votando per
la paz. Per la paz : Antici, Busca, Borgia, Caprara, Carandini,
Livizzani, Mattei ; Braschi : dudoso."
^ Seche, I., 273.
2 Azara to De la Paz, February 18, 1797 {ibid., 276).
3 Ibid., 276 seq. Cf. ibid., 92 ; Gendry, II., 274 seq.
*Mendizabal to De la Paz, September 7, 1796 (Seche, I., 211),
and on *September 14, 1796 (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome), with the following note from Busca : " D. Quirinal
9 Settembre 1796. Sua Santita ha comandato al card. Busca di
significare al suo reV"" sig. D. Stefano che resta in di Lei piena
liberta il disporre del noto legno come li ordini del suo sovrano gli
hanno prescritto non essendosi servizio di Sua Santita che lo
possa impedire." Mendizabal remarked on this : " We have
done all we could, therefore."
5 " *In mezzo a tante angustie I'animo del s. Padre si regge ed
una forma e santa fiducia lo sostiene." (Pesaro to the Doge,
February 17, 1797 ; State Archives, Venice.)
THE PEACE OF TOLENTINO 319
Massimi.^ Their departure was followed by the arrival of the
preliminary conditions laid down by Bonaparte as the basis of
any kind of negotiation. All the newly enlisted troops were to
be disarmed, General Colli and all other Austrian officers were
to be dismissed, and these steps were to be publicly announced.
Five days were allowed in which to consider these conditions ;
on their acceptance Bonaparte would be willing to receive the
Papal representatives at Foligno.^
The situation was so desperate that there was no question
of refusing to comply.^ In consequence Bonaparte invited the
Papal representatives to take part in talks at Tolentino, where
after a few days, on February 19th, terms of peace were signed.
The atmosphere of political tension in which the negotiations
at Tolentino were carried on is described most vividly in
Caleppi's reports.^ General Colli, on his return journey, met
Caleppi, and in his despair urged to him to bring about a peace
at any price. The Papal agents reached the Corsican's head-
quarters on February 16th. He received them the same
evening with exquisite courtesy and immediately paid them
a return visit in person. The Papal party consequently
looked forward to the negotiations with every hope.
^ Azara on February 18, 1797 (Seche, I., 278). The negotiations
were initiated by a letter from Mattei to General Bonaparte.
2 Seche, loc. cit. ; *Busca to the nuncio Albani, February 13,
1797 (Nunziat. di Germania, 696 ; loc. cit.). He ^\Tote that
Vienna should not take it ill of the Pope to agree, as he was in the
direst extremity. He would do all he could to retain Colli in
spite of everything.
^ A *Brief of April 29, 1797, expressed the Pope's sincere regret
at having to release the " locum tenente mareschallo Colli "
(on February 4 he had been addressed as " pontif. copiarum
supremo duci ") and assured him of his lasting gratitude {Epist.,
Ao XXIL, fo. 128 ; Papal Secret Archives). Colli's departure
" *a Napoli per poi portarsi, come egli ha detto, ai bagni dTschia "
was reported by Doria to the nuncio Albani on June 24, 1797
(Nunziat. di Germania, 696 ; ibid.).
* They were used by Richemont in Le Correspondant,
CLXXXVHI. (1897), 842 seqq.
320 HISTORY OF THE POPES
But in a few days these expectations were grievously dis-
appointed. First, the general complained about the breach of
the armistice that had been signed at Bologna, for which he
held the Pope responsible. He refused to allow the objections
that were made on this score, and as a basic condition for any
further negotiation he demanded the complete fulfilment of the
Bolognese agreements. The agents were given two hours in
which to decide whether they would give in or break with
France ; any discussion was ruled out. The first alternative
was chosen, as may well be imagined, whereupon Caleppi was
given the task of drawing up a draft treaty for the following
day, Bonaparte insisting on bringing the matter to a speedy
conclusion.
Cacault was included in the conversations that took place on
February 18th, having been summoned from Florence for the
purpose. Caleppi's proposals were rejected in their entirety as
being too moderate and his draft was burnt, Bonaparte then
drew up far more extensive demands, which included the
banishment of Roman nobles and the confiscation of their
property ; Rome was to be a free harbour for the French
alone and, above all, the French were to have the right of the
" esclusiva " in the conclave, even after the Papal election had
been concluded.^
As long as the French demands were of an economic or
political nature the Papal representatives showed every desire
to come to an agreement, but they could not suffer the
shghtest incursion into the ecclesiastical or religious sphere,
and therefore opposed such demands with surprising energy.
Though the General steadily increased his threats, they refused
to surrender an inch of ground, with the result that unpleasant
scenes occurred and the conversation was broken off. In the
evening, however, it was resumed on separate points of the
treaty and continued till midnight. Ecclesiastical questions
were not touched on again.
When the negotiations were coming to a close Caleppi
suddenly had misgivings about the advisability of making
^ Ibid., 844 seq.
THE TERMS OF THE TREATY 32 1
peace with Bonaparte at such a time.^ His colleagues, however,
overruled his objections and so the treaty was signed on the
morning of February 19th. The obligations thus incurred by
the Papal States were hard to bear, but Rome and the Holy
See had been saved once more and Bonaparte's attempted
encroachment on the ecclesiastical domain had been frustrated
by Caleppi's firmness.
The treaty, of twenty-six articles, ^ first required the
complete fulfilment of the conditions laid down in the
armistice of Bologna, in particular the delivery of the objects
of art and manuscripts ^ ; it then proceeded to demand very
much more. Thus, in the treaty the Papal Government
definitely revoked every agreement made in alliance against
France, it undertook to discharge the military reinforcements
it had recently enlisted, and granted the French Republic all
the privileges formerly enjoyed in Rome by the Most Christian
King. In the matter of territory the Pope formally renounced
his claim to Avignon and the Venaissin, and to the three
Legations of Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna ; pending the
conclusion of a Continental peace, Ancona and its environs
were to remain in French hands. The financial obligations,
including the sums already due, amounted to 46,000,000 scudi ;
in addition, there were considerable deliveries in kind to be
made. France, for her part, undertook to evacuate all other
territories she had occupied and to repatriate the prisoners
of war.
A courier bringing news of the peace that had been made
1 lUd., 846.
2 Text in Seche, I., 104, n. i ; Du Teil, 545 seqq. ; Vicchi,
164 seq., with Busca's " Notificazione " of February 24, 1797, in
Bull. Cont., v., 3, 2988 seq. French caricatures in Fuchs, Karikatur
der europ. Volker *, Miinchen, 1923, 151, 152. The ♦original-
minute, on separate sheets, with Bonaparte's signature, also
a fine copy of the treaty with its ratification in brochure form are
in the safe in the Papal Secret Archives.
' Cf. Corresp. des Direct., XVI., 498 ; list of art-treasures
loaded on vehicles, of April 10, 1797, ibid., 511 seqq. and 525 seqq. ;
G. A. Sala, Diario di Roma, III., 213 seqq.
322 HISTORY OF THE POPES
arrived in Rome on the evening of February 20th.i The Roman
delegates' state of mind may be judged from the letter from
Duke Braschi to the Pope, which the courier also brought with
him. " With God's help peace has been concluded. I cannot
describe to Your Hohness what we had to contend with and
endure in order to obtain it. Suffice it to know that more than
once poor Cardinal Mattel threw himself at Bonaparte's
feet, fighting for a long time against such terrible conditions
for Rome." ^
The next day the delegation itself arrived in the Holy City
and the day after the Pope called a Congregation of Cardinals
to ratify the agreement.^ There was satisfaction at the freedom
of Rome and the Church being preserved once more, though
at the cost of heavy sacrifices.^ Whether the Papal States in
their exhausted condition were capable of fulfilling their
obligations was open to doubt,^ but certainly France had
profited very considerably with comparatively trifling sacrifices
and very little effort. Once more, as at Bologna, Bonaparte
1 Mendizabal to De la Paz, February 23, 1797 (Seche, I.,
281 seq.).
2 Ibid., 282.
^ Ibid., 282 seqq. ; Tavanti, III., 307 ; *Busca to Litta,
February 25, 1797 (Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A ; Papal Secret
Archives) ; *Pesaro to the Doge, February 22 and 25, 1797
(State Archives, Venice).
* " *La religione e stata quella che principalmente si e avuta
in vista, poiche sarebbe stato incalcolabile il danno che ne avrebbe
sofferto dalla invasione dell'intero stato pontificio e specialmente
della capitale da cui sarebbe stato costretto il papa ad allontanarsi
per metter in salvo la dua sacra persona " {ibid.). — On March 15,
1797, Duminique wrote from Dresden to the nuncio Della Genga :
" Comme la nation fran9aise declare dans toutes les occasions
qu'elle est grande et genereuse, elle a donne par cette paix des
preuves de ses sentiments sublimes et de sa moderation en laissant
au moins au St. P^re le titre, les sept montagnes, les marais
pontins, le Capitole et I'eglise de St Pierre." Amial. de St.-Louis
des Franf., III., 36 seq.
* Even Azara expressed his doubts about it in his report of
February 24, 1797 (Sech]6, I., 288).
AZARA DEMANDS BUSCA S DISMISSAL 323
had shown that he was more successful as a diplomat than the
Directory, which had failed to come to terms with the Papal
agents either in Paris or Florence. ^
At this juncture, too, Azara would have been welcome in
Rome as an intermediary in the negotiations with the French,^
but he stayed on in Florence, declaring that he could not
return before Busca had been dismissed from the Secretaryship
of State, as he and the Queen of Spain had deeply compromised
him in letters that had become well known. It was true that
Busca had questioned Azara's integrity in the armistice
negotiations and had suggested to the Pope that he was only
posing as a mediator and that his sole purpose was to provide
the Duke of Parma, the Queen of Spain's brother, with portions
of the Papal States. Such a suspicion, in Azara's judgment,
could have been whispered into Roman ears by Naples alone.^
It was communicated by Busca in a letter to the nuncio
Albani, in Vienna ; the letter was intercepted by the French,
who for their own purposes published it.* Another and far
more weighty accusation was brought against Busca, namely
that he had worked for Rome's coalition with Naples and
Vienna, which neither Spain nor France could view with
indifference.
At first Pius VI. was incensed by Azara's presumption and
refused to give way.^ This attitude he maintained when
Busca, on March 9th, referring to Azara's request, asked to be
relieved of his office, though definitely stating that he had
^ " Bonaparte avait si habilement joue tour a tour le role du
' tragediante ' qui fulmine et du ' comediante ' qui caresse, que
les hommes du pape etaient partis de Tolentino depouilles et
reconnaissants " (L. Madelin, La Revolution, 462).
* Mendizabal reported on March 8, 1797, that the Pope had
written to him to invite him back to Rome (Seche, I., 297).
' *Azara to De la Paz, April 27, 1797 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome) ; *Lavaggi on March 18, 1797 (State Archives,
Genoa) .
* Mendizabal to De la Paz, March 23, 1797 (Seche, I., 112 seqq).
^ The same report [ihid., 301). Cf. Azara on March 25, 1797
{ibid., 306).
324 HISTORY OF THE POPES
never entertained thoughts of a foreign alhance without the
Pope's knowledge.^ Pius VI. 's reply on the following day was
full of praise of Busca's fulfilment of his duties and his resigna-
tion was not accepted. 2 When Busca renewed his request in
urgent terms on March ISth,^ the Pope gave way, giving
expression equally to his regret and his esteem and intimating
that Busca would be richly rewarded.'* His successor in
office was Cardinal Doria PamfiH, Prince Doria's brother,
who at this time especially was rendering important financial
assistance to the Holy See.^
A month later Azara returned to Rome, where he was given
a most cordial reception by the people and the Cardinal
Secretary of State, to the disgust of an Anglo-Neapolitan
party, which feared a revival of Spanish influence.^ The former
understanding between the Holy See and the Spanish
ambassador was restored at a Papal audience at the beginning
of Ma3', when all questions were discussed.'
In accordance with the peace treaty another Papal repre-
sentative had to go to Paris to make satisfaction for BassviUe's
1 *Busca to the Pope on March g, 1797, enclosed in Mendizabal's
report of April 10, 1797 (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome).
2 The *Pope to Busca on March 10, 1797 {ibid.), with an allusion
to the Bourbons' demand for Torrigiani's dismissal in Clement
XIII. 's pontificate. Cf. *Mendizabal to De la Paz, March 11,
1797 {ibid.).
3 *Busca to the Pope, March 15, 1797 {ibid.).
* The *Pope to Busca, March 16, 1797 {ibid.).
* He put, for instance, 6,000,000 of his own funds in Genoa at
the Pope's disposal (Mendizabal, on March 2, 1797, in Seche, I.,
291 ; and *on April4, 1797, loc. cit. ; *Pesaro to the Doge, March 11,
1797, State Archives, Venice). Cf. A. Rubino, loc. cit., XV., 121.
For his relations with Spain, cf. Azara, on April 25, 1797 (Seche,
I-, 307)-
» *Azara to De la Paz, April 27, 1797 (" Hace tres dias que estoi
en Roma "), Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome ; *Pesaro
to the Doge, April 22, 1797 {loc. cit.).
~ The Pope was moved to tears, reported Azara on May 10.
1797 (Seche, I., 311).
THE EXECUTION OF THE TREATY 325
murder. The Marchese Massimi was chosen for the purpose,
and he stayed on in the French capital as charge d'affaires.^
To superintend the execution of the treaty, Cacault returned
to Rome,^ where he was given a very friendly welcome by the
Pope and subsequently showed himself to be a lenient inter-
preter of the various agreements, in full accord with Bonaparte,
who in contradistinction to the anti-clerical Directory, would
gladly have come to terms with Rome on ecclesiastical matters.
In August Cacault was replaced as ambassador extraordinary
of the Republic to the Holy See by Joseph Bonaparte, the
General's brother, formerly charge d'affaires at Parma. At the
end of the month he took up his residence in the Palazzo
Corsini, in the Lungara, which subsequently became the centre
of movements that were anything but pleasing to Rome.^
The Papal Court found it far from easy to raise the money
demanded.* The Pope sold the objects of value that were his
personal property, and many of the Papal robes were stripped
of their pearls and other ornaments.^ His example was followed
^ The two *Briefs of authority for Massimi and his secretary,
J. Gorirossi, of June i, 1797, in Epist., A" XXII/XXIIL,
fo. 132 seq. (Papal Secret Archives). The first begins : " Carissimis
in Christo fihis nostris civibus Directorii executivi reipublicae
Francorum " ; the second ends : "... precamur et apost.
benedictionem amantiss. impertimur." There was also the
observation : " Tanto di questo che dell'antecedente breve ne
furono fatti due altri senza I'Apost. Benedizione da presentarsi
o gli uni o I'altri secondo venisse concertato a Parigi." Cf. *Doria
to Gius. Albani in Vienna, June 3, 1797 (Nunziat. di Germania,
696 ; loc. cit.), and *Azara to De la Paz, May i, 1797 (Archives of
the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
2 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, April 10, 1797 {ibid.) ; *Pesaro to
the Doge, February 25, 1797 {loc. cit.). Cf. A. Rubino, loc. cit.,
XV., 120.
' *Doria to the nuncio Litta, September 9, 1797 (Nunziat. di
Polonia, 343 A, loc. cit.) ; Gendry, II., 281.
* Plans for raising money from church property, etc., were
reported by *Pesaro to the Doge on February 25, 1797 (State
Archives, Venice).
* Gendry, II., 280.
326 HISTORY OF THE POPES
in a similar spirit of self-sacrifice by many Cardinals and Roman
nobles, with the result that it was found possible to pay the
required sums within the prescribed periods. ^ The Papal
subjects had to play their part by surrendering their gold and
silver in return for paper money. ^ Of the many legislative
measures taken for the procurement of money those that
exacted heavy taxes from the secular and regular clergy
aroused particular attention. ^ In spite of all this, the French
were a long time in withdrawing from the provinces they had
occupied, and their continued presence there only increased
the general impoverishment and distress.*
In other ways, too, the occasions for popular discontent
grew more numerous every day.^ Very soon after the con-
clusion of the treaty, when Cacault, on his departure from
Rome, gave a dinner to the French officers and the diplomatic
corps, serious disturbances took place and the French were
1 *Azara to De la Paz, April i, 1797 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome ; A. Rubino, loc. cit., XV., 120 seq.).
-Mendizabal to De la Paz, March 2, 1797 (Seche, I., 291).
3 Azara to De la Paz, August 25, 1797 [ibid., 323). On
September 10, 1797, Azara *reported on the gloomy economic
conditions in Rome and the efforts made to improve them
(Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
* *Pesaro to the Doge, March 18 and 25, 1797 {loc. cit.) ; *id. on
April I, 1797 (they are leaving Umbria at last and are now only in
Ancona and the Romagna), and *April 8 (great rejoicing in Umbria
at the return of the Papal authorities), ibid. Cf. A. Rubino,
loc. cit., XV., 122.
^ " *La revolucion quasi completa de Italia se va . . . con una
rapidez incredible " (Azara to De la Paz, May 25, 1797 ; Archives
of the Spanish Embassy in Rome) . The Papal States, he continued,
are surrounded by democratic republics ; no one can see how they
can continue. " Los que conocen el caracter italiano, la rivalidad
de unos pueblos con otros, autorizada con la diversidad de
goviemos establecida desde tantos siglos, los intereses tan diversos
de todas las ciudades, no conciben que este nuevo sistema pueda
subsistir mas ticmpo que el que lo sostenga la fuerza prepon-
derante que acava de formarlo y preveen una semilla de guerras
civiles interminablcs."
DISTURBANCES IN ROME 327
insulted in the streets.^ Even the Papal civil guard was
attacked and disarmed by gangs of ruffians, and plots against
the State were discovered.^ The most serious outbreak took
place on the evening of August 1st, in the vicinity of the
Quirinal, the Pope's residence.^ In April, owing to the
insecurity of public order, he had abandoned the journey he
usually made to Terracina to inspect the drainage works in the
Pontine Marshes.*
It was at this time, too, that Pius VI. 's physical condition
often gave cause for serious apprehension. In May, 1797, it was
so disquieting ^ that the possibility of a conclave in the
immediate future began to be discussed in diplomatic circles
and corresponding preparations were made.^ Soon, however,
Azara was able to report that His Holiness's health had
1 Mendizabal to De la Paz, March 2, 1797 (Seche, I., 292).
^ Id. to id., March 23, 1797 {ibid., 302). On March 18, 1797,
Pesaro *reported to the Doge the arrest of thirty revolutionaries
(State Archives, Venice ; Gendry, II., 282).
' Azara to De la Paz, August 10, 1797 (Seche, I., 320) ; *Doria
to the nuncio Litta, August 5, 1797 (Nunziat. di. Polonia 343 A ;
Papal Secret Archives).
* *Mendizabal to De la Paz, April 10, 1797 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome).
5 " La salute del Papa comincia a dar soggetto d'inquietudine ;
attaccato da stranguria dovette in questi giorni piii volte assogget-
tarsi alia operazione della siringa : gli fu due volte ripetuta
I'emissione di sangue, e qualunque cosa ne dicano i suoi famigliari,
la sua avanzata eta e questo nuovo incomodo non lascia di
cagionar qualche timore delle sue conseguenze." (*Pesaro to the
Doge, May 6, 1797 ; State Archives, Venice.) " La salute del
Papa ogni giorno va declinando e facendosi sempre maggiore
I'infermita da cui e attaccato, non si abaglia a prevedere che vanno
a gran passi a\^icinandosi gli ultimi giorni della sua vita "
{*id. to id., May 13, 1797 ; ibid.).
• Azara asked for instructions and discussed them in his report
of May 10, 1797 (Seche, I., 313). Cf. *Lavaggi on May 6, 10,
20, and 27, 1797 [loc. cit.), and *Doria, the Secretary of State,
to Litta on May 6, 13, and 27 (Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A ; loc.
cit.).
328 HISTORY OF THE POPES
improved/ though at the end of July an accident in the night
brought on another temporary set-back. ^ A ruhng of the
Spanish Government issued at this time stated ^ that in the
event of a Papal election no German or Italian candidate was
to be permitted and that a French one was quite out of the
question. Azara was to press for the election of a Spaniard,
namely the Archbishop of Toledo, Cardinal Lorenzana. On
September 25th Azara signified his general compliance with
this instruction and reported at the same time that the Pope's
health had taken another turn for the worse ; he had already
received the Viaticum, had summoned the Sacred College to
his side, and had given the necessary orders for the preserva-
tion of peace and order.^ Almost immediately, however, his
health began to mend, and by October he was convalescing.^
Azara took this opportunity of explaining to his Government
in a calm and objective manner that its attitude towards the
question of a conclave was untenable, for according to a long-
standing tradition, which in the present circumstances had
more force than ever, it was only an Italian who was likely to
be considered.^
Soon there were further differences between the Papal
Government and Bonaparte. On an application being made in
Vienna by Giuseppe Albani, General Provera was sent to the
Pope to succeed Colli as the generalissimo of the Papal troops.'
Through his brother in Rome Bonaparte raised objections to
such an appointment, but at first they failed to have the
^ *Azara to Dc la Paz, July i and lo, 1797 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome). A slight improvement had been
*reported by Pcsaro to the Doge on May 20 {loc. cit.).
2 Azara's second report of July 25, 1797 (Seche, I., 317). On
August 10 he reported him to be better again {ibid., 320).
^ *De la Paz to Azara, from S. Ildefonso, August 28, 1797
(Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
* *To De la Paz, September 25, 1797 {ibid.). Cf. *Doria to
Litta, September 30, 1797 (Nunziat. di Polonia, loc. cit.).
^ Azara to De la Paz, October 10, 1797 (S^ch6, I., 326).
« Azara's second report of October 10, 1797 {ibid., 328).
' Azara's first report of the same day {ibid., 327).
ANCONA AN INDEPENDENT REPUBLIC 329
desired effect.^ Other awkward features of the situation were
the difficulties raised by Rome about the recognition of the
Cisalpine Republic ^ and the military preparations that
Naples persisted in making on the frontier of the Papal States,^
which, in view of the unsettled conditions in northern Italy,
were causing apprehension. The latter situation was eased at
last by the peace that was signed at Udine on October 17th
by Bonaparte and the Austrians, after lengthy negotiations.'*
With the approach of winter the economic situation in Rome
grew worse ; the value of the paper money was barely
sufficient to meet daily needs, commerce was on the point of
collapse,^ and the legal measures that were found necessary
were highly unpopular.^ Another misfortune was the loss of
Ancona. By the treaty made with Austria it should have been
returned to the Papal States ; instead, it declared itself an
independent repubhc'
The numerous elements of discontent in Rome, which were
not averse to a revolution, were centred in the Palazzo Corsini,
the residence of the French ambassador, who was receiving
instructions from the Directory to encourage republican
aspirations in the States of the Church.^ Among the French
1 *Azara to De la Paz, October i, 1797 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome). Bonaparte threatened to declare war unless
Provera and the Austrian officers left the Papal States within
twenty-four hours (* Azara to De la Paz, November 25, ibid. ;
Gendry, II., 283).
2 *Id. to id., November 25, 1797 {ibid.), and December 25,
1797 (Seche, I., 329).
* *Id. to id., September 10 and October 25, 1797 {loc. cit.).
« Ibid.
^ *Id. to id., November 25, 1797 (ibid.). For the sale of church
property to relieve the distress, v. Tavanti, III., 318. Cf.
" *Pensieri sulle circonstanze economiche di state pontif. dell'anno
1797 " (Bibl. Vittorio Emanuele, Rome ; Fondo Gesuitico, 195,
pp. 78 seqq.). Cf. Dufourcq, 13.
* *Azara to De la Paz, December 10, 1797 {loc. cit.).
' *Id. to id., June 10, November 10 and 25, 1797 {ibid.).
^ How carefully he carried out these instructions and
systematically encouraged the revolution is shown in the
330 HISTORY OF THE POPES
emissaries was a General Duphot, who was said to have
supphed his followers with money and republican cockades.^
On learning that revolutionary movements were under way
the Papal Government strengthened its patrols in the city
and on December 27th there were clashes between the Papal
soldiers and the riotous mob, serious injuries being inflicted.
Joseph Bonaparte, when offered the leadership of the popular
insurrection, maintained a disapproving attitude towards
it 2 ; nevertheless, on the following day there were further mass
meetings, at which there were shouts of : " Long hve the
Repubhc ! Long live Liberty ! " Two men were killed by the
Papal patrol and the mob fled for help to the Palazzo Corsini.
What precisely happened here has not been definitely estab-
lished. The reports rendered by Joseph Bonaparte, Azara,
and others are not entirely clear and do not agree.^ What is
certain is that General Duphot, who, as the ambassador's
future brother-in-law, was staying with him as his guest,
appeared among the rioters with a drawn sword, more as an
aggressor, therefore, than a mediator. The Papal party tried
to disarm him but he made a serious show of resistance, and
while making his way through the crowd fell down dead.*
*Relazione del card. Antonelli sull'avveniito in Roma dal 1797
al 1799, which, though it produces evidence, is strongly pre-
judiced against the French (Bibl. Vallicelliana, Rome ; Filza
Cappa, Xn., 7, 25, pp. 7 seqq. ; Gendry, II., 284).
^ Cf. G. BouLOT, Le general Duphot 1769-1797 (Paris, 1908) ;
*Relazione del card. Antonelli [loc. cit.) ; Gendry, II., 285 ;
Seche, I., 166.
2 BouLOT, loc. cit., 153 seq., 157 seq.
3 Bonaparte's report {ibid., 157 seqq. ; cf. ibid., 184 seqq.) and
Azara's (Seche, I., 169 seqq.). Full accounts in the letter written
by *Doria, the Secretary of State, to the nuncio Litta on
December 30, 1797 (Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A, Papal Secret
Archives), and in the *Relazione del card. Antonelli {loc. cit.,
pp. 9 seqq.). Cf. Dufourcq, 73-7 ; G. A. Sala, Diario di Roma,
I., 5 seq. ; SciouT, Le Directoire, II., 3, 259 seqq. ; Verri, Viceude
memorabili, 339 seqq.
* The incidents are described in the detailed and well-informed
Memorie storiche sulle principali cagioni e circostame delta
MASSIMI IMPRISONED 33I
In the words of a French historian he was " the victim of his
own imprudence and impetuosity ".^
This unfortunate incident was the start of all the ensuing
calamity. 2 Its effect on the Directory in particular was like
a spark in a barrel of gunpowder. Massimi, the Papal
ambassador in Paris, was put in prison and his papers were
seized.^ Joseph Bonaparte's behaviour was similarly directed
towards an open breach with Rome, and in this he was assisted
by the injudicious step taken by Doria, the Cardinal Secretary
of State who, as soon as the accident occurred, hastened to
rivoluzione di Roma e di Napoli (1800 ; no place of publication),
which were probably compiled by Valentinelli {v. Dufourcq,
570) : " Duphaut piu temerario sprezza I'avviso, comanda alle
truppe che depongano le armi, e non vendendosi obbedito, vuole
aprire la strada ai ribelli fra I'arnii. Si avanza. Viene di nuovo
a chiare note avvertito. Progredisce ; e i soldati per necessaria
difesa, e per non perdere la posizione fanno fuoco su i congiurati.
Fu allora, che cadde a terra mortalmente colpito Duphaut, e che
sull'ardita e minacciosa sua sciabola in vano tento sostenersi.
Accorre un prete per confcssarlo ; ma bruscamente e scacciato
dairagonizzante, che seguitando a pronunciare : fuoco, fuoco,
senz'altro indugio rimane morto " (p. 177).
1 De la Gorge, IV., 359. He was honourably buried in Rome
on February 8 (c/. Boulot, 258 seqq. ; ibid., 220 seqq., the
solemn conveyance of the corpse to the capitol).
* A Congregation that met on December 29 (Dufourcq, p. 80,
gives the date erroneously as the 26th) decided on an inquiry,
which proceeded slowly. The unskilful letter sent to the Courts
is mentioned in the *Relazione del card. Antonelli [loc. cit.,
pp. 13 seq.) : " II processo si fece, ma cosi lentamente che non fu
compito se non verso la fin di gennaro. So formo del processo una
relazione, ma cosi sfigurata e tronca, che non meritava che venisse
da Roma pubblicata. Si scrisse pure a Parigi e altre Corti, ma si
scrisse contanta circospezione e lenocinio, che noi sembravamo i
rei bisognosi di giustificazione e di compatimento. Si cerco la
protezione di Napoli, ma si passo oltre, e invece de'soliti uffici,
vi furono spediti due Legati, il Card. Braschi e Mons''® Caleppi,
con espressa commissione d'implorare le armi del Re e una
dichiarazione di guerra contro i Francesi."
' Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 185 ; Gendry, IL, 289.
332 HISTORY OF THE POPES
apologize, thereby acknowledging the guilt of the Papal
party. ^ The ambassador thereupon asked for post-horses
with which to make an immediate departure. All Doria's
efforts to appease him failed, and even Azara's personal inter-
cession had no effect. On the following morning the representa-
tive of the French Republic quitted the city. Azara was urged
by Doria to go after him and persuade him to return, but this
he omitted to do.^
From this point onwards one event followed another in
rapid succession. On January 11th, 1798, a definite order was
issued by the French Government to its troops to march on
Rome and occupy it.^ The army accordingly moved south-
wards, under General Berthier, with orders from Bonaparte to
expel the Pope and set up a republic in Rome. The Cardinals
besought the Pope to take refuge in Naples, but this he refused
to do and remained steadfastly at this post, prepared to endure
whatever the future might have in store for him.^ On
February 9th the French occupied Monte Mario and the Ponte
Molle,^ and Berthier received visits from Azara, Duke Braschi,
Doria, the Secretary of State, and other high-ranking
diplomats.^ The next day Berthier made known his terms of
1 Gendry, II., 287. Nevertheless, Doria relied, too optimis-
tically, on the French Directory's interpreting the situation in
an understanding manner and on the intervention of the Catholic
monarchs, which he invited. (* Doria to the nuncio Litta,
January 6, 1798 ; Nunziat. di Polonia, 343 A, Papal Secret
Archives.)
2 His excuse was " che egli era vietato di mischiarsi ulterior-
mente negli affari di Roma " {Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 183).
Cf. Gendry, II., 288.
^ BouLOT, 203 seqq. Although the French were only 10,000-
20,000 strong, the Papal States were no longer able to withstand
them {*Relazione del card. Antonelli, loc. cit., pp. 14 seq.).
« *Doria to Cardinal Antonelli, February 7, 1798 : The Pope
is determined to remain and desires the Cardinals to do likewise.
Relazione del Card. Antonelli, loc. cit., p. 46.
5 Sala, Diario di Roma, I., 12.
« Gendry, II., 282 ; Tavanti, III., 344.
ROME OCCUPIED BY BERTHIER 333
capitulation.^ The demands made for the atonement of the
" attack " of December 28th far exceeded all previous ones,
so far as payments of money and cession of territory were
concerned, and they included the production of four Cardinals
and four nobles as hostages and the imprisonment of high
prelates and dignitaries.
Naturally the special confidence of the French general was
enjoyed by Azara, with whom he discussed all the details of
the action he intended to take in the next few days ; his
desire, he told him, was to occupy Rome without resistance
and without bloodshed. ^ In a report rendered at this time
Azara proudly relates how he prevailed on Berthier to allow
the religious life of the city to continue without the slightest
interruption, religious services to be held as before, as though
there were no Frenchmen there at all, and the Pope to exercise
his priestly functions with complete freedom and to retain his
guards and palaces, his soldiers, and his police.^ He had been
able to obtain these favours from Berthier without any great
difficulty, as no one could be more humane than he.
The College of Cardinals decided to comply with Berthier's
conditions. On February 10th the surrender of Rome to the
French revolutionary army was signed and executed. An
edict issued by the Secretary of State had already threatened
with the death penalty anyone who molested the French.*
Everything possible was done to maintain public order.
Azara, who now acknowledged that he was a friend of the
French, exhorted the Spaniards in Rome to behave sensibly.
In his reports to Madrid he was full of praise for Berthier's
behaviour and referred sarcastically to the lethargy and pious
helplessness of the Romans.^
1 For what follows, see *Azara to De la Paz, February 10-12,
1798 (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome). The twenty-one
articles of the capitulation are in Gendry, II., 293 seq.
- Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 190.
^ Cf. also *Azara to De la Paz, February 21, 1797 {loc. cit.).
* Doria's edict of February 9, 1797, in Memorie storiche, loc. cit.,
196-8. Cf. Gkndry, II., 296.
'- On February 10-12 Azara *reported to De la Paz on the large-
334 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Presumably Berthier purposely chose February 15th, the
anniversary of the Pope's election, as the day on which to
carry out the revolution, in accordance with his orders.
Hitherto he had not said a single word about it.^ After the
ecclesiastical celebration of the anniversary the seven Cardinals
who had taken part in it were kept under surveillance by a
French officer in the Secretary of State's apartments, while
the French troops entered the city, joined up with the revolu-
tionary conspirators, and in the presence of a vast crowd
erected a tree of liberty on the Capitol. ^ Here a document was
read, announcing the deposition of the Pope as a temporal
sovereign and the erection of a Roman republic. In the after-
noon Berthier, with a military escort, made his entry into the
city, where he was received by the people in silence.^ On the
Capitol he made a speech in which he recognized, in the name
of the French Republic, the new political order.*
Pius VI., who was again suffering from his physical ailments,
received the first report of these events with calmness and
composure. In the evening he was officially informed by the
commandant of the city. General Cervoni, that the Roman
people, disgusted with the abuse of political power, had
decided to regain possession of its sovereignty and its freedom
scale demonstrations of the Romans' piety, which he interpreted
as lethargy. This, for instance, was how he judged a procession
of over 150,000 participants (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in
Rome). For the processions, etc., that took place between
January 16 and the beginning of February, see *Relazione del
card. Antonelli, loc. cit., pp. 15 seq. Cf. Dufourcq, 81 seq.
^ Some hesitant attempts at a revolution had been made on
February 11. See *Relazione del card. Antonelli, loc. cit., p. 21.
2 In the ensuing narrative use has been made of *Azara's letter
to De la Paz, of February 16, 1798 (loc. cit.), and especially the
*Relazione (pp. 22 seqq.) cited on p. 329, n. 8 ; also Sala, Diario
di Roma, I., 28-32 ; Baldassari, Gesch. der Wegfuhrung imd
Gefangenschaft Pius' VI., ed. F. N. Steck, 166 seqq. Cf.
Dufourcq, 99 seqq.
^ Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 208.
* BouLOT, 214 seq.
THE POPE IN PROTECTIVE CUSTODY 335
and had set up a government of its own. As the protectress of
the freedom of ah peoples, the French nation had not been
able to oppose this urgent desire. The Pope's person was
inviolable and he could continue to exercise his spiritual
functions as the first Bishop of the Church. To these fine
words Pius VI. replied that he respected the inscrutable
designs of divine Providence.^ Thereupon the Quirinal and
Vatican were occupied, the archives and offices were taken
over, and the Pope was declared to be in protective custody.^
Azara's report of February 16th speaks in solemn words of
the " epoch in world history " initiated by the destruction of
the temporal power of the Pope and the resurrection of the
Roman republic.^ Azara had not been entirely free of responsi-
bility for these events, but even he began to feel a little uneasy
when the revolutionaries planted a tree of liberty outside his
windows and proclaimed that they were fighting not only
against the Pope but against all sovereigns.^ He had the
guards outside his residence doubled and kept away from the
anniversary celebrations in St. Peter's ; he even tried to
dissuade Cardinal Lorenzana from attending them, though it
was his duty to do so. He comes to the conclusion in his
report that the whole affair was nothing but a comedy played
by the French Republicans, in which the harmless Roman
^ Gendry, II., 299 ; Verri, Vicende niemorabili, 351 ; Memorie
storiche, loc. cit., 207 ; Sala, Diario di Roma, I., 32.
' " *Memorie di A. Galimberti deH'occupazione francese in
Roma, 16 febbr. 1798," fo. 12, Bibl. Vittorio Emanuele, Rome,
cod. 44-5.
^ " *Me determino a avisar a V.E. con extraordinario la gran
crisis por la qual hubimos de pasar y el nuevo orden de cosas en
que nos hallamos, que hara epoca en la historia del mundo, pues
ayer fue destruido el imperio temporal de los Papas y resucitada la
republica Romana aunque mui diferente de la antigua " (Azara
to De la Paz, February 16, 1798 ; Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome) .
* " *Algunos facciosos habian tenido la insolencia de plantar el
arbol de la libertad delante di mi casa y predican horrores no
solo contra el papa sino contra todos los soberanos " {ibid.).
336 HISTORY OF THE POPES
people took very little interest. He could not help pa5dng
tribute to the Pope's courage and resolution.^
But the Pope had yet to undergo the heaviest blow :
expulsion from the Vatican and the Eternal City. On
February 17th he was informed that he would have to leave
Rome within three days. Azara relates ^ how the com-
missary Haller put troops into the Papal palace and then
presented himself to the Pope, whom he informed that he
could go to Tuscany. Provision would be made for the journey
and his maintenance. The Pope rephed with astonishing com-
posure that they could do what they liked with him, but he
would neither leave Rome nor desert his Church.^ It was not
till Haller and Cervoni threatened to use force that he gave
way. His wish to be allowed to choose Naples as his place of
exile had been refused.* Although he was seriously ill he
discussed his departure with Cardinals Doria, Gerdil, and
Antonelli. He imparted all necessary powers to the members
of the Sacred College who were staying behind, and at
Antonelli's suggestion he nominated a special Congregation
under the latter's presidency, consisting of two members of
each of the three cardinalitial ranks. ^
^ " *Todo esto en el fondo no ha side mas que una comedia,
pues yo puedo asegurar a V.E. que este pueblo no ha hecho mas
ni meno de lo que los Franceses le han dictado, baxo mano, los
quales tenian per instruccion de democratizar a Roma sin com-
parecer que la democratizaban ... El Papa ha tomado la cosa
de una manera que se podria llamar valor en otra persona y cir-
cunstancias " {ibid.). The point was made in the Memorie
storiche {loc. cit., 204) that of the 190,000 inhabitants of Rome
only 500 had taken part in the revolution.
* *To De la Paz, February 16 and 21, 1797 {loc. cit.). Cf.
Baldassari, 1845^9^.
s '< *£i Papa ha respondido con una gran presencia de animo que
hagan d'el lo que quieran, que no se movera de Roma ni aban-
donard su Iglesia " (Azara on February 16, 1797, loc. cit.).
* *Relazione del card. Antonelli, loc. cit., pp. 23 seqq. ; Gendry,
II., 303 seq.
^ *Azara to De la Paz, February 21, 1797 {loc. cit.) ; Gendry,
II., 304.
THE POPE REMOVED FROM ROME 337
It was February 20th, 1798. Long before daybreak Pius VI.
heard Mass and afterwards enclosed the Blessed Sacrament in
a small case which he hung round his neck. Eighty years old,
frail, and mortally sick, he entered the travelhng carriage that
awaited him in the Cortile di San Damaso. He was accom-
panied by two clerics, the Maestro di Camera Caracciolo and
the ex- Jesuit Marotti, and his physician Tassi. An hour
before sunrise the party left Rome unnoticed, attended only
by some French officers in another carriage.^ Tears came to his
eyes as he saluted for the last time the church of St. Peter and
the tomb of the Prince of the Apostles.^ It was exactly a year
and a day since the conclusion of the peace of Tolentino,
which he had hoped in vain would spare his beloved Rome the
worst indignity. Now he was to leave St. Peter's city as an
exile, under cover of darkness, and leave it for ever.^ Siena
was reached in five daily stages, and here he was at first
accommodated in the convent of the Hermits of St. Augustine*
Of the Cardinals, thirteen stayed on in Rome for a time,
while as many others had either left already or did so now.^
Of the first -mentioned six were placed under arrest, together
with other high dignitaries, in a former convent on March 8th,*
1 See the *Relazione cited on p. 329, n. 8, and *Memorie di
A. Galimberti for February 20, 1798 {loc. cit., fo. 19) ; Baldassari,
197 seqq. ; Sala, Diario di Roma, I., 46 seq. ; Gendry, II.,
305 seq. ; De la Gorce, IV., 359 seq. ; Mourret, VII., 258.
2 RiNiERi, II Caporale Trasteverino, Roma, 1904, 406.
' The last volume of the index to Pius VI. 's Epist., A° XXII. /
XXIII., fo. 210 seqq., closes with the numerous *Briefs of
February 3, 1798, addressed to German princes, to whom he
commended the cause of the Church at the Congress of Rastatt.
The last *Brief to the nuncio Delia Genga " facultatem tribuit ad
publicas faciendas protestationes si necesse fuerint in congressu
Radstadiensi " {ibid., fo. 218 ; Papal Secret Archives).
* Cf. below, p. 356.
5 Gendry, II., 309.
* Their subsequent vicissitudes were related by one of their
number, Cardinal Antonelli, in his *Relazione (pp. 27 seqq.,
loc. cit.). Cf. Memorie storiche {loc. cit., 250 seq.) and Sala, Diario
di Roma, I., 90.
338 HISTORY OF THE POPES
three more were expelled, and two lay sick. To the great
distress of the Pope, Cardinals Altieri and Antici asked to be
reheved of their high ecclesiastical offices. In a letter of
March 7th, 1798, Antici gave as the grounds of his apphcation
his advanced age and utter physical debihty and the desire
to spend the evening of his hfe in peace and spiritual
recollection. 1 Altieri, on March 12th, wrote to the Pope of the
impossibility of fulfining his cardinalitial duties any longer.
Shortly afterwards, on the insistence of the Roman consuls, he
followed this up with a second letter in which his appeal for
leave to resign was stated in more definite terms. ^ As the Pope
was not at first inclined to accede to these requests he
supported his appeal with two theological opinions, the
soundness of which, however, was contested by Monsignore
Spina.3 Antici, however, behaved as though he had already
been relieved of his rank.^ Cardinal Antonelh, who interceded
on behalf of his two colleagues, tried to allay the Pope's
misgivings, which apart from the lack of canonical grounds
were due to the fear that other members of the Sacred College
would adopt this means of escaping persecution.^ Of the two
appellants, he would have parted more readily with Antici,
but both cases had to be treated alike. After months of
resistance the Pope agreed to give way.^ In two Briefs of
1 Baldassari, 246 seq.
2 Ibid., 248 seq.
'Pius VI. to Antonelli, April 14, 1798, in E. Celani, loc. cit.,
484.
* " *Antici que vive ahora aqui come un simple privado."
(Mendizabal to De la Paz, March 25, 1798 ; Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome ; Mourret, VII., 274).
* " *Sua Santita mi argomenta sempre contro con la mancanza
della causa canonica a rinunciare e col cattivo esempio che si
darebbe " (Spina to Antonelli, June 22, 1798, Relazione del card.
Antonelli, loc. cit., fo. 113). Cf. ibid., fo. 66 : *Archbishop
Zondadari to Antonelli, April 15, 1798.
* Spina *\\Tote to Antonelli on September i, 1798, that Antici 's
Brief was ready and approved and that only the signature was
needed. A similar Brief was being prepared for Altieri, and the
THE FATE OF THE CARDINALS 339
September 7th, 1798/ he acknowledged the vaHdity of the
grounds adduced and declared that the two Cardinals were no
longer wearers of the red hat. At the same time he definitely
denied them the right to attend the next conclave. Altieri
died soon afterwards, but Antici, as soon as the political
situation in Italy had been changed by the victory of the
Austrians, entertained the notion of regaining his cardinahtial
rank and insignia and even of demanding admission to the
conclave at Venice.^
The six Cardinals lying under arrest in Rome, after being
urged without success to resign their rank of their own accord,
were taken on the night of March 10th, under military escort,
like malefactors, to the Dominican convent at Civitavecchia.
Here they were allowed to move about in two corridors and
the refectory, but not in the church or staircase. Later, the
Prior obtained for them permission to say Mass. The colony
was soon increased by the arrival of another party, which
included Cardinals Consalvi and Barberi, who had been
confined in the Castel S. Angelo. On March 23rd, however,
they were all set at liberty, each having to choose a place of
residence (to be reached by sea) outside the Roman Repubhc.^
In consonance with the talk in Paris of freeing the descen-
dants of Brutus from the tyranny of fanaticism, Berthier's
speech on the Capitol was full of turgid reminiscences of
ancient times : " Manes of Cato, Brutus, and Cicero, accept
the homage of free Frenchmen on the Capitol, where you so
affair would presumably be concluded in a few days {ibid.,
fo. 125).
^ *Both Briefs, addressed to all the Cardinals, are in the Epist.
adprinc, 194, fo. 64 seqq., 67 seqq., Papal Secret Archives. German
translation in Baldassari, 484 seqq.
- Baldassari, 252.
^ Cf. for the whole affair, Gendry, II., 312 seq. ; Sala, Diario
di Roma, I., 123 seq. In July, 1798, according to a statement in
the Papal Secret Archives (Epoca Napoleonica, Italia, 1,1) ten
Cardinals were resident in Naples, twenty-nine in other parts of
Italy, and nine in other countries, including four French emigres
{v. Archivio Romano, XXXVI. [1913], 495).
340 HISTORY OF THE POPES
often defended the rights of the people and celebrated the
Roman Repubhc ! These sons of the Gauls, with the olive
branch of peace in their hands, will re-erect on this hallowed
spot the altars of freedom that were set up of old by the first
Brutus. And you, citizens of Rome, who are recovering your
lawful rights, remember the blood that flows in your veins !
Turn your eyes to the monuments of glory that surround
you ! Regain your ancient greatness and the virtues of your
fathers ! " ^
As in every revolution, these phrases were followed by a
reahty that in many respects was well up to the standard of
the Reign of Terror.^ The new government was based on
military force. All suspicious persons were condemned to
death and any French emigres who had not already escaped
were expelled.^ Day after day a fresh crop of ordinances and
announcements was issued by the new Government.* For the
maintenance of public order a National Guard was formed.
The mob flocked to the great popular festivals in the Piazza
di S. Pietro, where it Hstened with enthusiasm to high-flown
speeches about the golden age that had just begun. ^ A month
later there was a huge festival of brotherhood in the piazza,
attended by representatives of every district of the new
republic.^
But quite a time was to pass before the people was allowed
to govern itself. The new constitution had Httle of the antique
about it ; it was modelled rather on the French pattern of
the year III.' The only indication of the promised revival of
1 DuFOURCQ, io6 seq.
2 Madelin {La revolution, 507) calls the Roman Republic
" Una exploitation desordonnee ".
^ Gendry, II., 301.
* *Relazione del card. Antonelli [loc. cit., p. 23).
=> Gendry, II., 302 ; *Memorie di A. Galimherti, for February
23, 1798 [loc.^cit.).
« *Mendizabal to De la Paz, March 25, 1798 (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome). Illustration in Malamani.
Canova, 63.
' The comparison is developed by Scioux (Le Directoire, II., 3,
THE SPOLIATION OF NORTHERN ITALY 34I
ancient Rome was some unimportant modifications, the most
notable of which were some badly chosen official titles. Thus,
at the head of the new State were five consuls, and the legis-
lative power was vested in two chambers, the Tribunal, with
seventy-two members over twenty-five years of age, and the
Senate, with thirty-two members over thirty-five years. ^
Paying no attention to democracy, General Massena, the
successor of Berthier, who was recalled to Paris, appointed the
consuls and most of the representatives of the people according
to his own judgment.^ Further, for the time being at least, the
French generalissimo, who received direct instructions from
Paris, was to control the consuls.^ The division into Depart-
ments * and the revolutionary calendar were also introduced
from France.
The French troops, not having received any pay for a long
time, failed to live up to their role of popular benefactors and
soon deteriorated into plunderers. The French showed them-
selves to be adept at systematically robbing Rome of its unique
wealth of art treasures accumulated in the course of 2,000
years. ^ Paris, the capital of the great Republic, was to be the
artistic as well as the poUtical centre of the West ; Rome,
therefore, had to surrender the treasures assembled there by
emperors. Popes, and aristocrats.
The delivery of works of art and manuscripts had been
demanded by Bonaparte at Bologna and Tolentino. The
cities of northern Italy had already been despoiled. Correggio's
works were moved to France from Parma ; Modena, Ferrara,
and Verona had to make their contributions ; the works in
silver from the churches in Milan were partly melted down,
partly transferred to Paris ; Bologna lost over 500 valuable
2gg seqq.). Cf. G. Garavani, La costituzione della repubblica
yomana (Fermo, 1910, 39-59).
1 DuFOURCQ, 171.
- Ibid., 109 ; SciouT, 304.
* SciouT, ibid.
* They are listed in Sala, Diario di Roma, I., 87.
* For the systematic plundering of Rome by its " liberators "
see DuFouRCQ, 1 14-18, Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 211 seqq.
342 HISTORY OF THE POPES
manuscripts, and in Venice hands were laid on the treasury of
St. Mark's.
And now it was the turn of Rome. In March-July 1798, the
plundering was carried on with feverish activity. On one day
alone a long procession of 500 horse-drawn vehicles, under
a strong military guard, was seen leaving the city.^ It con-
tained an immense number of antique sculptures and
Renaissance paintings that France was appropriating in
accordance with the peace of Tolentino. They included the
Laocoon group, the Belvedere Apollo, the Dying Gaul, Cupid
and Psyche, Ariadne on Naxos, the Medici Venus, and the
colossal figures of the Tiber and the Nile ; tapestries and
paintings by Raphael, including the Transfiguration, the
Madonna di Fohgno, and the Madonna della Sedia ; Titian's
Santa Conversazione ; and many other works. It was not till
several years after that these stolen treasures were exhibited
in the Musee Napoleonien in the Louvre, which was opened in
1807. After Napoleon's downfall most of these works, together
with other trophies of his, were returned to their former
places. 2
The losses in precious metals and stones were equally
extensive ; everything that could be carried was taken by the
French to their own country. All the churches ^ and palaces
^ RiNiERi, // Caporale Trasteverino, 76 seq. Satirical *sonnet
" Per 11 trasporto delle statue di Roma in Francia " in the Bibl.
Comunale at Forli {cf. Mazzatinti, Inveniari, I., 51).
2 Cf. Hautecoeur, Rofne et la Renaissance, 259-270.
' They included the national churches of other countries, such
as the Spaniards. Azara complained about it in his *reports to
De la Paz on February 21, 1798. On March 10 he *reported that
the French agreed to return him so little that he preferred to let
them have it as a gift and as a mark of Spanish friendship. The
efforts made to have the national churches excepted from the
general taxation of churches was *reported by Mendizabal on
April 10, 1798 (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
Cf. Sala, Diario di Roma, I., 76, 83 seq., 92, 103, 242 seq.
(St. Peter's, cf. 250), 257 seq., 135 (also in the provinces), 161 seqq.
(the general result), IT., 86 seq., 122, 1 25 ; for the sale of churches.
ROME S TREASURES REMOVED TO FRANCE 343
were stripped. On one day, under the direction of the Papal
Captain Crispoldi, gold and silver bars to the value of
15,000,000 scudi were taken away in coffers. They had been
abstracted from the Castel S. Angelo, the Monte, and the
properties of the Cardinals and patricians. At the beginning of
April pearls and precious stones valued at 4,000,000 sctidi were
taken off to France ; they included 386 diamonds, 333
emeralds, 692 rubies, 208 sapphires, and many other stones.
Most of them came from the famous tiaras of Popes Julius II.,
Paul III., Clement VIIL, and Urban VIII. On July 8th
500 of the most valuable manuscripts were surrendered, at the
loss of which Cardinal Borgia and Monsignori Marini and
Caracciolo were said to have wept like children.^ A week later
a vast herd of 1,600 horses trotted out of Rome, destined for
the French army in Italy. ^
The Romans watched with silent grief the removal of the
treasures that had been so proudly preserved,^ the wanton
damage done in the gardens and collections of the Vatican and
the great private libraries,* the sale by auction at pitifully low
prices of the treasures belonging to the Pope, the Cardinals,
the Villa Albani,^ the Farnesina, and other houses ; some of
ibid., II., 40, 45 ; for the German national church, the Anima,
II., 92 seq. For the plundering of the Roman churches, v. the
*Memorie di Ant. Galimberti for March i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and
October 29, 1798 (Bibl. Vittorio Emanuele, Rome, Cod. 44-5).
1 RiNiERi, 407. Coins were removed by the hundred (see
F. Gnecchi, Appunti di numismaiica romana, LXIV. : / medagli
exvaticani, in Riv. stor. di numismat., XVIII., 1905, 11 seqq.).
For Canova's grief at the robbing Of the Vatican Library and
numismatic collection, v. O. Malamani, Canova, 63.
2 RiNiERi, 78 seqq.
' Ibid., 80 seq.
■• Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 268 seq. ; Sala, Diario di Roma, I.,
156, 180 ; ibid., 174, the Pope's private library.
^Memorie storiche, 292 ; Sala, loc. cit., 126 seq. ; Cabanis in
Chronique medievale, I. (1907), 287 (Winckelmann's journey to
Paris, and Christine of Sweden's to Montpellier). *Mendizabal
to De la Paz, April 10, 1798 {loc. cit.).
344 HISTORY OF THE POPES
them passed into Jewish hands in the ghetto.^ It was even
proposed to blow up the Castel S. Angelo, carry off
the obehsks, and remove Raphael's frescoes from the
Stanze.^
This vandahsm on the part of a civilized nation is unique in
history and is one of the blackest crimes committed by the
French Republic.^ This colossal robbery, combined with the
economic and financial oppression of the Roman people,
which became more and more intolerable, aroused the greatest
popular indignation, resulting in several outbreaks that had
to be quelled by force of arms.* To support and superintend
the steps taken by General Massena, the Directory set up a
military commission of four members in Rome, and Massena
become nothing more than an executive instrument.^ The
exploitation of the people, however, went on worse than ever.^
After a time Massena was disliked by his own troops, and the
commissioners had to devise means of checking a threatened
^ The properties of the Santo Uffizio, for instance, were sold for
2,000,000 scudi, those of the Collegium Germanicum-Hungaricum
for 260,000 [Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 270), the rest of the collec-
tion of cameos belonging to Trinita de' Monti for 100 scudi
[ihid., 286). For the Jewish retail trade, see Sala, Diario di
Roma, I., 155.
^Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 269 ; Rinieri, 142.
^ Sala, Diario di Roma, I., 127 (March 27, 1797) : " Un'invasione
di Goti o di Unni e anco un saccheggio de' piu solenni ci avrebbe
recato minor danno, di quello che risentiamo dalla pacifica
dimora di questi Eroi liberator! del genere umano."
* Cf. Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 236 seq. (Trastevere), 296, 298,
299 (at various other places), 300 (defeat at Terracina) ; Sala,
loc. cit., i8j seq., 192. The *Memorie di A. Galimberti for
February 27, 1798 {loc. cit.), tell of the shooting of tw^enty rebels
in the Piazza del Popolo ; cf. *ibid., for March i, 1798 (return of
the victorious troops from Albano and Velletri). Cf. *Relazione
del card. Antonelli, loc. cit., p. 26 ; Gendry, II., 298 ; Mourret,
VII., 276.
* Rinieri, 469.
* Ibid., 480 ; ibid., 488, various savage crimes committed by
the French .soldiers.
THE MISERY OF THE ROMAN STATE 345
mutiny.^ When both officers and soldiers refused to obey
him Massena fled from Rome, and the commissioners,
having declared that they would have nothing more to do
with him received fresh and more extensive powers from
Paris.2
It soon became apparent that with the surrender of Rome
insupportable obhgations had been laid on a State which had
already been severely weakened by the treaties of Bologna and
Tolentino.^ Both private and pubhc resources were exhausted
and plundered to such an extent that even the commissioners
reported on the financial incapacity of the Roman State. The
paper money, which had long been the sole form of currency,
was apparently about to share the fate of the French assignats.*
Domestic life was ruined, financially and otherwise, by the
incessant quartering. Religious houses were converted into
barracks and subjected to exorbitant taxes, and 200 of them
were dissolved.^
For strangers, too, residence in Rome was anything but
pleasant. Everyone, including the Auditors of the Rota and
the Generals of religious orders, had to furnish the Government
with personal particulars. The diplomatic representatives
began to feel unsafe. Fuming with indignation at the continual
infractions of international law, Azara, in March 1798,
decided to leave Rome and retire to Florence.® Almost as
^ There were several mutinies against him. Details in
DuFOURCQ, 123 seqq.
- * Azara to De la Paz, March 10, 1798 (Archives of the Spanish
Embassy in Rome). The commissaries' announcement was
reproduced by Sciout in the Revue des quest, hist., XXXIX.
(1886), 159 seq.
^ In addition there was the secret agreement on Rome's financial
obligations made on 8th Germinal, VI. (Scioux, Diredoive, II.,
3, 307 seqq.).
* DuFOURCQ, 193 seqq.
^ Memorie storiche, loc. cit., 285. CJ. Sala, loc. cit., 200, 208.
^ * Azara to De la Paz, March 10, 1798 (Joe. cit.). He went off
without instructions on March 13. Cf. *Mendizabal to De la Paz,
March 25, 1798 (the MS. has, erroneously, 1797), ibid.
346 HISTORY OF THE POPES
soon as he arrived there he was offered the post of Spanish
ambassador in Paris, which he accepted.^ ^^■hile occupying
this position, too, he remained a hfelong supporter of
" Enhghtenment ".
In their bitter disillusionment the Romans turned for help
to Naples. 2 In October 1798, King Ferdinand IV. did request
the French to leave Rome but, of course, without result. In
consequence, on November 14th, the Neapolitan Government
issued a proclamation to the Roman people, but it failed to
have the desired effect on the French. Thereupon General
Mack, with Neapolitan troops, opened hostilities and advanced
rapidly to the gates of Rome, where there were further popular
disturbances.^ The French now retired from the city and the
Neapolitans entered it on November 29th, to the great joy
of the people.* In a declaration of December 3rd the city was
asked to put its complete confidence in the King of the Two
Sicilies. But all this was only a brief interlude. After seventeen
days the French, having obtained reinforcements, stormed
Rome and pursued the South Italians to Naples, which fell to
them on January 23rd, 1799.^ Hardly had they established
a new republic there when a general insurrection blazed up in
Italy, Rome taking its share. ^ As in the Tyrol and Spain,
the popular movement against the predatory French and their
impious republic was of a strongly religious character. The
Austrian declaration of war in March, 1799, impaired the
situation of the French troops, who could no longer hold their
1 *Mendizabal to De la Paz, April 10, 1798 {ibid.).
2 For the origin of the Franco-Neapolitan war, v. Dufourcq,
338 seqq.
* MOURRET, VII., 276.
* De la Paz's *report of December 10, 1798 {loc. cii.) ; Lavaggi's
♦report of December 7, 1798 (State Archives, Genoa). Sala (II.,
232) relates how, as soon as the French had withdrawn, the people
shattered the monument to Duphot which had been erected on the
Capitol.
•'■ MouRRET, VII., 277.
" Cf. Dufourcq, 490 seqq.
WITHDRAWAL OF THE FRENCH FROM ROME 347
ground. The rising was led by Naples, and the French soon
had to quit Rome for the second time. But it was not till
July, 1800, that the successor of St. Peter, now bearing the
title Pius VII., could re-enter the Eternal City. In the mean-
time his predecessor had had to drink the chalice of exile to
the last bitter drop.
CHAPTER IX.
The Renewal of the Persecution of the Clergy in
France — Pius VL's Last Journey and His Death
IN Exile.
(1)
The further sufferings and humiliations undergone by the
head of the Church, already sorely tried, after his banishment
from Rome, were connected with the change brought about in
French politics by the coup d'etat of 18th Fructidor. The years
in which the ecclesiastical recovery was, if not actually
encouraged, at least not impeded, were followed by another
period of persecution, called by many French historians the
" Second Terror ".
The personal and political differences of opinion among the
five members of the Directory had long been threatening to
break out into an open rupture. The more lenient and con-
ciliatory attitude, which extended to religious questions, held
by Carnot and Barthelemy, was opposed by that of the three
other directors, Barras, Larevelliere, and Rewbell, who still
adhered to the radical traditions of the Convention and the
Terror.^ A resolution passed by the Five Hundred on
August 24th, 1797, revoking all the laws against non-jurors,
decided them to take definite action. ^ Carnot, with his
superior intelligence and the support he received from the
broad masses of the people (for which he was envied by his
colleagues in office), could perhaps have averted the change
that threatened, but he hesitated too long and thus con-
demned the more moderate party in the Parliament to a
waiting policy of inactivity.^
The radical party, on the other hand, provoked by Carnot 's
' SciouT, Constit. civ., IV., 576.
- AuLARD, II., 546 seq.
^ SciouT, Constit. civ., IV., 580 seq.
348
THE " SECOND TERROR IN FRANCE 349
intransigence/ worked itself up into a feverish activity which
caused pubHc apprehension of imminent disturbances. The
views of the three revolutionary Directors developed into a
deiinite plan of campaign, which was finally decided on at
a secret meeting with their supporters in the Ministries on
September 3rd, 1797.2 It was to be put into effect with the
help of the military on the following day, the famous
18th Fructidor of the year V.
Bodies of troops marshalled together in the capital and
placed at first under the command of General Augereau,
occupied the headquarters of the most important civil
authorities and corporations and the strategic points in the
city.^ In the morning the astonished Parisians were informed
of the alleged discovery of a royalist plot, in which even the
highest Government circles were involved. This justified the
mihtary measures and the guarding of all the streets, and the
opposition, which sensed immediately that these measures
were aimed at them, found it impossible to organize themselves
in any way or to offer any resistance.^ At the same time steps
were taken to arrest the moderates. Carnot escaped his fate
by taking to flight in good time, whereas Barthelemy fell into
the hands of spies. Their party adherents in both Chambers
were also arrested and interned in the Temple. To maintain
public order threats of severe punishment were issued.^
The moderate party having been rendered harmless, the
other representatives of the people, at the command of the
three remaining members of the Directory, met in session,
the Council of the Five Hundred in the Odeon, the Council of
the Ancients in the School of Medicine. Under pressure of the
Government, they approved of the action it had taken and
^ De la Gorge, IV., 215.
- Ibid., 217.
* Documents on the part played by Augereau in Pierre,
18 Fructidor, 72-9.
* Ibid., 217 seq.
* Ibid., 219 seq. For the subsequent fate of the arrested men,
see SciouT, Le Directoire, II., 3, i seqq.
350 HISTORY OF THE POPES
appointed a commission of councillors to prepare the neces-
sary legislative proposals.^
At midnight on this eventful day the deputies assembled in
a new plenary session and dehberated the whole night long on
the proposed legislation. The ruthless measures they evolved ^
annulled the parliamentary elections of no less than forty-nine
Departments, condemned to deportation the two Directors
together with forty-two members of the Council of the Five
Hundred and eleven of the Council of the Ancients, reintro-
duced all the laws of banishment affecting the clergy,^ and
further enacted that every priest suspected of intrigues against
the State was, after individual condemnation, to suffer the
same penalty.
When these resolutions were laid before the Council of the
Ancients in the early hours of the morning it tried to defer
their ratification as long as possible, but in the afternoon a
definite order came from the Directory to vote on them
immediately. Fifteen members voted in fa\'our of them,
seven against. The way was now clear for the radical Directory
to give vent to its arbitrary anti-clericalism.^
Another important measure was the imposition on the
clergy of a fresh oath " against the monarchy and anarchy ".^
Although the Pope expressed his disapproval of this renewal
of political oppression of the French priests,^ many of them
took the required oath, if not in such large numbers as in the
autumn of 1795.' But as in many cases the authorities pre-
sumed that the priests still in France had already taken the
1 SciouT, Constit. civ., II., 582 seq. ; this session of the Council
is described in Pierre, loc. cit., 47-58.
- AuLARD, II., 550 ; SciouT, Constit. civ., IV., 584 seqq.
^ Only one deputy, Laujeaq, representing Lot-et-Garonne,
refused to be intimidated and spoke on behalf of the priests.
De la Gorge, IV., 224.
* Ibid., 226.
^ Ibid., 233 ; PisANi, L'eglise de Paris, III., 259.
" Cf. Baldassari, 290 seq., and 290, n. 2 ; Pisani, loc. cit., 264.
' AuLARD, II., 551 ; Pierre, Deportation, xxvi seqq. ; Pisani,
loc. cit., 260 seqq.
PERSECUTION OF THE CLERGY 35I
former oaths of the Revolution, the new one was of practical
importance only for the adherents of the constitutional schism.^
More important in actual effect was the reintroduction of
the deportation laws, which meant the arrest of all the priests
who had been left at liberty on account of old age, illness, or
other reasons, and the re-expulsion of all who had returned
from exile. Once again, therefore, there was a stream
of fugitive priests making their way into neighbouring
states. 2
In addition, penalties were enforced against priests alleged
to be dangerous to the State, to an extent that was hardly
reahzed at first. The arbitrary nature of the action taken
against them ^ was justified in individual cases on the grounds
that they had refused to take the oath, that they had shghted
Republican laws and institutions, and that they were " fire-
brands of fanaticism ". Any exercise of ecclesiastical functions
or duties rendered them guilty of this last condemnation.'* Nor
were the Constitutional clergy spared ^ ; the only cults that
had nothing to fear were atheistic or pantheistic ones, of a
Rousseauesque tinge, ^ especially philanthropy and the cult
of the " Decade " , which was now put into practice by the
State.' The inmost character of the French Revolution, with
its ideological content, was thus unmasked.^ The practice of
Christian behefs was obstructed by the greatest difficulties
and numerous harsh restrictions.^
Soon the Directory exceeded its own ordinances by taking
collective measures as well as condemning individuals. ^^ Thus,
^ SciouT, Directoire, II., 3, 155.
- De la Gorge, IV., 233, 235 seqq.
^ SciouT, Directoire, II., 3, 148.
'' Pierre, Diportation, xxi seqq.
5 Pierre, Terreur, 208 seqq.
'^ De la Gorge, IV., 270 seqq. ; Mourret, VII., 272 seq.
' Sgiout, Le Directoire, II., 3, 179 seqq. ; Aulard, II., 555 seqq.
* SciouT, Le Directoire, II., 3, 149, 151.
* Thus, several churches were closed again {ibid., ijdseqq.).
'" In practice most of the individual sentences were made out
according to a general formula, so far as the justification and
352 HISTORY OF THE POPES
ninety-nine priests from Maine-et-Loire were sentenced to
deportation on one order for arrest. ^ In many Departments
action was taken only on direct instructions from the
Directory, but in others, side by side with this activity, an
equally radical persecution of the priests was carried on by
the Departmental authorities, which, as was often the case in
other parts of France also, formed the sole executive power.^
One must study, therefore, the measures taken by both central
and provincial authorities to obtain a complete picture of this
arbitrary rule.^ It was only the southern regions of the realm
that suffered little from this co-operation in comparison with
the remainder of the country. Temporal and local variations
in the execution of the deportation laws naturally followed
from the uneven distribution of authority.^
On September 6th LarevelHere, as President of the Directory,
signed an order by which all persons condemned to deportation
were to be conveyed to the penal colony of Cayenne, in South
America.^ In consequence, four large ships brought a doleful
burden of more than 250 priests to Cayenne, where most of
them, owing to the inclement climate and the lack of the barest
necessities, fell ill and succumbed to a miserable fate.^ The
actual sentence were concerned. Pierre, Deportation, xi seq. ;
cf. id., Terreur, ij8 seqq.
1 All the deportation sentences and similar ordinances of the
Directory have been published by Pierre (Deportation, 1-436) ;
only eight of the persons sentenced were layfolk (six men and two
women ; ibid., ix n.). Documents referring to the measures taken
by the Departements, including Paris, in Pierre, 18 Fruciidor,
258-449. Cf. E. Sol, Le clergi du Lot sous la Terreur fructidorienne ,
Paris, 1922, based on documents.
2 Pierre, Deportation, 159 seqq. ; ibid., xi, a collection of
instances of a similar nature.
' Ibid., xvii seqq.
* Ibid., xiii seqq., xix seq. Cf. also Sciout, Directoire, II., 3,
169 seqq.
* MouRRET, \TI., 260.
* De la Gorce, IV., 248 seqq. ; Mourret, VII., 260 seqq. ;
SciouT, Directoire, II., 3, 194 seqq. ; Pierre, Terreur, 65 seqq..
RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION IN BELGIUM 353
majority of those condemned, however, owing to the fear of
the EngHsh ships, were not taken to Cayenne ; they were
confined, first, for the most part, in the fortress on the isle
of Re, later also, in part, on the island of Oleron. On Re there
were nearly 1,000 priests, including a Bishop, and over 100
laymen ; on Oleron, towards the end of 1799, there were
250 prisoners. Of the 1,388 persons held in captivity outside
the Continent only 476 had been directly condemned by the
Directory.^ We must remember, too, the uncounted host of
victims who during these years repopulated the prisons in
France itself, and those who managed to escape a fearful fate
by taking to flight in good time or by going into hiding. There
was also a considerable number of heroes who as innocent
victims in these months, too, testified to their faith and their
loyalty to the Church in the face of the musket-barrels of the
military commissions. Records show that in the course of a
year at Besan^on alone no less than twenty-five persons were
executed for their faith. In all, about 250 such cases were
recorded, but the actual total is certainly far greater.^
The religious persecution of the Second Terror soon spread
to Belgium, which by this time had been entirely conquered.
All non-juring priests were condemned en masse. ^ By a general
decree of the Directory issued on November 4th,. 1798, about
8,000 of them were sentenced to deportation.^ The only
Bishop still resident in Belgium, Cardinal Frankenberg, was
267-330, where their fate is related in detail ; ibid., 424-436,
their names.
1 De la Gorge, IV., 265 seqq. ; Mourret, VII., 26^ seqq. ;
Pierre, Deportation, xxxi seq., and still more Pierre, Tevreur,
335-363 {ibid., 437-458, the names).
2 De la Gorge, II., 235 seqq., where numerous individual
instances are described. Similarly, Scioux, Directoire, II., 3,
161 scqq. ; Mourret, VII., 259. Cf. Leglerq, Les Martyrs,
XIII., 14 seqq., 20 seqq., especially 24 seqq., 34 seqq.
' In Belgium the sentences were mostly collective (Pierre,
Deportation, xiii).
^Mourret, VII., 271; Scioux, Directoire, II., 3, 185 5e^^. ;
Pierre, Terreur, 247 seqq.
354 HISTORY OF THE POPES
to be sent to one of the islands, but on medical grounds he was
finally allowed to retire to a retreat on the Rhine. ^ The sup-
pression of the University of Louvain was due to the same
inexorable hatred of the Church. In the autumn of 1798 a
popular rising in Belgium in support of the Church was put
down by armed force. ^ It was not till the dawn of the new
century, when Bonaparte, as First Consul, was at the head of
the Government, that a change took place in the pohtico-
ecclesiastical conditions in France.
(2)
The Pope's expulsion from the city of St. Peter was intended
by the enemies of the Church to represent the final triumph of
the French Revolution over the Christianity of the West. It
was significant that before informing Pius VI. of his imminent
expulsion from Rome General Haller demanded from him,
under threat of force, the two rings he was wearing. " I can
give you one of them," the Pope replied, " because it is my
own property. But the other will have to pass to my
successor." This was the Fisherman's Ring.^ With this
unswerving faith in the ultimate victory of the enslaved
Church and with willing resignation to the will of God, Pius VI.,
enfeebled by age and barely recovered from a serious illness —
in fact, he never really recovered — accepted the hardships of
an exile that was to last a year and a half.
On his departure from Rome in February, under cover of
darkness, he was escorted by a detachment of dragoons as far
as the Ponte Molle,* the bridge that through the victory of the
Emperor Constantine had become so important in the history
of the Papacy. In spite of the most unfavourable weather
countless numbers of the faithful were kneeling at the sides
of the road, in the rain, the cold, and the snow, waiting for the
blessing of Christ's representative on earth.
1 SciouT, Directoire, II., 3, 183 se^. ; Verhaegen, Card, de
Franckenberg, 358 seq., 361 seqq.
2 MouRRET, VII., 269 seqq.
' Tavanti, III., 352 seq.
* Baldassari, Gesch., 212 seq.
THE DEPORTATION OF THE POPE 355
Even at the end of the first day's journey Pius VI. was so
exhausted that he had to be lifted from his carriage by four
sturdy servants and borne to the bed prepared for him in the
abbey of Monterosi. The house was unable to provide him
with even the most modest repast.^ The next day the journey
was continued through thickly falling snow to Viterbo, where
again he was greeted by large crowds. They filled the streets
and the squares of the town and even the steps and passages
of the convent which had been allotted as his quarters. Those
in power considered it necessary to call on the military to keep
the people under control.^ The latter gave vent to their anger
and grief on the following morning, when the Pope, dis-
regarding the fatigue it caused him, went to the church of the
Franciscan nunnery and prayed in silence for a long while
before the relics of the holy virgin Rosa, who was highly
venerated in the locality.^ At Viterbo the party was joined by
Duke Braschi. At Montefiascone the venerable exile was
received with the peahng of bells and the cheers of people
spread over the whole hillside. In response to solicitous
questions about his health the Pope, nobly mastering his own
emotions, said : " We are well, very well, but I must say to
you, ' Be strong in faith ' ! " * When the inhabitants of
Bolsena saw the helpless, suffering old man, they were dan-
gerously near venting their wrath on the Pope's escorts, the
two French commissaries. After spending the night at the
house of a landed proprietor at San Lorenzo Nuovo, the Pope
crossed the frontier of his former States on February 23rd.
At the frontier town the departure of the former sovereign was
^ Ibid., 214 seq.
^ Ibid., 216 seq. ; Sala, Diario di Roma, III., 227 seq. ; [P. la
Fontaine], Pio VI . e Viterbo durante il periodo della Rivoluzione,
Viterbo, 1899, 10 seqq. ; report of an eye-witness in Viterbo in
LuMBROSO, Roma e lo Stato Romano dopo il 1789, in the Atii
della r. societd dei Lincei, 5th series: Rendiconti sc. mor., I. (1892),
212 seq. Two years later the same witness saw the Pope's corpse
brought back to Rome.
=* Baldassari, 218.
* Ibid., 219.
356 HISTORY OF THE POPES
announced by the ringing of bells, the wdndows and streets were
decorated with carpets and flowers, and the Bishop accom-
panied the Pope to the frontier, where the departure was
made unnecessarily humiliating by a vexatious customs'
examination.^
On Tuscan territory the Pope was given shelter for one
night in the estate of Santa Quirizia, which belonged to the
family of the Sienese Archbishop, afterwards Cardinal,
Zondadari. The provisional end of the journey, the
Augustinian convent at Siena, was reached on February 25th.2
Certain members of the Florentine Government, fearful of
damaging their good relations with France, had objected to
the Pope's permanent residence in the capital, as had been
planned at first. For the same reason all subjects were for-
bidden to pay the venerable exile public comphments.^
Nevertheless, the Sienese were hard put to it to restrain their
joy and grief at the arrival of the distinguished party. ^ The
Apostohc nuncio to Florence, Archbishop Odescalchi, with
Monsignore Spina, Duke Braschi, and the other members of
the retinue who had hurried on in advance were at the convent
entrance to welcome the Pope. Courtesy visits were paid by
the Governatore of the town and the Maggiordomo Manfredini,
representing the Grand Duke,^ who wTote a letter of welcome
in his own hand.® In spite of this, the Government expressed
its disapproval of Archbishop Zondadari's having gone to
meet the Pope.''
In a few days Siena seemed to become the capital of the
1 Ibid., 221 seq.
2 Ibid., 223 seq.
3 Cabinet secretary Rainaldi to the Luogotenente di Siena,
February 21, 1798, in E. A. Brigidi, Giacobini e Realisti o il
Viva Maria, storia del 1799 in Toscana, Siena, 1882, 102. Cf.
PoNCET, Pie VI. d Valence, 41.
* Brigidi, 121 seq.
6 Baldassari, 226.
* Brigidi, 126 seq.
' Minister Seratti to the Governatore of Siena, February 24,
1798 {ibid., 117).
PIUS VI. IN SIENA 357
grand duchy, ^ so numerous were the visits of foreign emissaries
and charges d'affaires and of lay and clerical dignitaries, though
even the visits of Bishops to the Pope had to be sanctioned by
the Government, while other strangers were given permits for
a short stay only in most exceptional cases and on previous
application. 2 From time to time Cardinals, Bishops, and
emigres assembled together for a few days. On Sundays
regular processions of pilgrims from outside the town, especially
the rural districts, came to visit the " Prisoner of Antichrist ",
as he was called, and to ask his blessing. Every day numerous
priests and noblemen were received in audience in the convent
library, although the two chamberlains posted in the anteroom
rendered daily reports on the Pope's visitors to the Govern-
ment in Florence.^ These visitors included many foreigners,
especially Englishmen and Swiss. To compensate for this
undesired ecclesiastical activity in the town a masonic lodge
was founded at this time at the instigation of the French. In
May 1798, however, the Government had to take decisive
steps against it.*
During the Pope's three months' stay in Siena he divided
his day between prayer, work, and recreation.^ As long as his
health permitted him he celebrated Mass himself, especially on
holidays ; otherwise he always attended it. On his midday
drives he was accompanied by Archbishop Zondadari and
Monsignor Caracciolo, who paid him every attention in many
other ways. Particular interest in the Pope's welfare was
taken by Cardinal Lorenzana, who was accredited to the
grand-ducal Court as the representative of Spain and paid
frequent visits to Siena.^ Odescalchi, the nuncio to the same
1 " Siena, patria di S. Caterina, prende I'aspctto di capitale "
{ibid., 133 seq.).
2 Ibid.
* Ibid., 134-7, ^45 ^^'7- '< " Rorn^' e spapata, Siena e impapata "
[ibid., 147).
^ Ibid., 165 seq., 186 seq.
^ Martini, Luogotenente of Siena, reported fully on the subject
to the Minister [tbid., 144) ; cf. Baldassari, 227 seq.
* Ibid., 229.
35S HISTORY OF THE POPES
court, moved altogether to Siena during the Pope's stay there
and acted as his Secretary of State, inasmuch as he maintained
the correspondence with the foreign nunciatures and with the
aid of the Sienese Archbishop and his vicar and chancellor
prepared the Papal rescripts.^ A number of foreign envoys to
the Court of Florence, together with trustworthy merchants,
saw to the conveyance of the letters and documents to foreign
countries.^
The small sum of money the Pope had received from the
revolutionary government in Rome at the time of his expulsion
was soon spent, whereupon his household expenses were
defrayed by means of alms, such as those from the cathedral
chapter at Prague and in particular those from Archbishop
Despuig, at Seville.^ It was at this time that the Pope con-
firmed the veneration of Blessed Andrea of Gallerani (d. 1251),
which had long been practised at Siena. The necessary pre-
hminary investigations had been conducted by an extra-
ordinary Congregation presided over by Zondadari.*
Apart from the affair of Cardinals Antici and Altieri ^ the
Pope was chiefly concerned, as was only natural, with the
continuance of the most important Curial offices, especially
the Dataria and the Penitentiary. He discussed them with
Cardinals Doria and Roverella when they visited him in
Siena on April 12th and he had a great deal of correspondence
on the subject with Cardinal Antonelh.^ Two other matters,
1 " *Mgr. Nunzio e quelle che porta i memoriali e le suppliche, e
dipoi, unitamente a me, al mio vicario e cancelliere, facciamo i
rescritti, per le formole dei quali ci serviamo di quelle che
rinveniamo neirarchivio arcivescovile." (Archbishop Zondadari
of Siena to Antonelli, April 15, 1798, Relazione del card. Anionelli.,
Filza Cappa, XIL, 7, Bibl. Vallicelliana, Rome, fo. 66".)
2 Baldassari, 231.
8 Ibid., 232.
* Ibid., 232 seq. ; Gendry, II., 319.
* Cf. above, p. 338.
* Pius VI. to Antonelli, April 14 and May 11, 1798, printed in
E. Celani, / preliminari del conclave di Venezia, in the Archivio
della R. Societd Roniana, XXXVI. (1913), 483 seq., 488.
THE CATHOLIC COURTS UNHELPFUL 359
however, gave still greater cause for concern : the further
vicissitudes that awaited the Pope and the preparation for
another conclave, which obviously could not be far off.
As was only to be expected, the Pope in his distress turned
for help to the Catholic Courts,^ in the hope of obtaining
through their mediation some alleviation of his deplorable
situation, which was also so prejudicial to the welfare of the
Church, especially as his stay in Siena was known to be only
temporary. Together with the necessity of arranging for the
next Papal election, the future of the Papal States and the
fate of the Cardinals must have caused him great anxiety.
Consequently, when writing to those Catholic princes from
whom he expected assistance he went to great lengths in
describing the urgency of his situation. ^ The replies he received
consisted only of fine phrases ending in excuses : for political
reasons nothing could be done at the moment, the French in-
tentions being so unpredictable. The Portuguese Government
went a little further, ordering prayers to be said for the Pope.^
Of particular importance, of course, was the lively corre-
spondence, always in cipher, carried on with the Court of
Vienna,* through Monsignore Albani.^ In these letters the
1 Gendry, IL, 316. Consalvi reported in his *letter to Mgr.
Albani of August 20, 1798 (Nunziat. di Germania, 696 A, Papal
Secret Archives), that Carafa and Doria were appealing through
the nuncios to the Emperor and the Spanish and Portuguese
monarchs on behalf of the Pope, and that Litta and Erskine had
been given similar commissions.
2 MouRRET, VII., 275.
' Gendry, II., 316 ; Celani, loc. cit., 486.
* Austria and Spain seemed to offer the best prospects of
assistance : " *Le corti di Vienna e di Madrid, che sole potrebbero
dare qualche peso ai nostri affari, operano oppure mostrano di
operare con un'ammirabil timidezza." (The Archbishop of Siena
to Antonelli, April 15, 1798 ; Relazione del card. Antonelli.
loc. cit., fo. 65.) Zondadari * wrote again to Antonelli on April
24 : " Vienna e Madrid rispondono con i soliti ' Mi dispiace ',
attaccamento alia S. Sede, timori di scisma etc., ma dicono che le
attuali circostanze non permettano il fare di piu." (ibid., fo. 81".)
^ *Letters in cipher to Albani, till August 1798, Nunziat. di
360 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Pope was assiduous in reminding the Emperor of his special
duty as the principal protector of the Church. In a letter of
March 17th Odescalchi expressed the definite expectation^
that the Emperor would not fail to put forth his strong arm in
support of the supreme head of the Church, who was in such
a situation that he could not even speak with the strength and
firmness that the critical times demanded. Albani's task was
to arrange for the Pope, as soon as he was forbidden to stay
any longer in Tuscany, to find a refuge in the Imperial
dominions, in accordance with a friendly agreement between
Vienna and Paris — a dehcate task for Albani, in the per-
formance of which Odescalchi advised him to be particularly
cautious. But the reply sent from Vienna on March 31st
dispelled all hopes : the Imperial Court considered it far from
opportune to initiate negotiations with France on the subject
and could not accede to the Pope's desire at the moment. The
Pope, deeming it even more impossible to make representa-
tions in Paris himself, again requested Albani to urge the
Emperor, if only to avoid a schism, to promise to secure some
place in his states where the future conclave could assemble. ^
Odescalchi backed up this request by referring to the report
that the German Bishops had asked the Emperor for per-
mission to receive the Pope in their midst. ^ In the ensuing
correspondence the more Albani's zeal was praised by
Germania, 696 {loc. cit.) ; *also till December, 1798 {ibid., 696 A) ;
*drafts, mostly for ciphers 696, ibid., 697 ; *reports from Vienna,
1799, ibid., 698.
1 *Odescalchi to Mgr. Albani, March 17, 1798 {ibid., 696).
2 *Id. to id. from Siena, April 19, 1798 {iMd.) : " . . . il s. padre
con quanto gradimento e paterno affetto ha sentito le ottime
disposizioni di S.M. Imp. verso la S. Sede e la sua s. persona,
altrettanto dispiacere ha provato nel sentire che la M.S. Imp. non
sia in grado di adcrire alle sue istanze non credendo opportune da
mettere in trattativa coi Francesi I'affare di porre ne' suoi stati la
s. persona di S. S*^ . . . S.M. Imp. deve proteggere la chiesa,
procurare di evitare lo scisma."
^ " *Si ha notizia che i vescovi della Germania abbiano fatto
istanze a S.M. Ces. per avere fra di loro il S. Padre " {ibid.).
PREPARATIONS FOR THE NEXT CONCLAVE 361
Odescalchi the less prospect there was of any practical solution.
Finally, we read that Albani was not to regard instructions of
this nature as obligatory commissions but was merely to sound
the ground for any possibility of success.^ Albani then made
two suggestions for attaining their object. One was to influence
the French Directory through the Tuscan Government, but
this the Pope considered to be quite unacceptable, as it would
compromise the Grand Duke still further, to a dangerous
degree, and might have the worst possible consequences both
for himself and his country. The second proposal seemed to
have a better prospect of success, namely to spur on the
German Bishops to take further steps in petitioning the
Emperor.^
There were also difficulties in choosing a suitable place for
the conclave. It was doubtful if the Cardinals living in
Neapolitan territory would be able to make their way into
Northern Italy. There was some thought of entering into
closer relations with the Catholic Courts in the hope of
inducing them to allow the Cardinals to enter Imperial terri-
tory in the event of a Papal election. If the French were to
hear of these negotiations they would be sure to do their
utmost to prevent the Cardinals' departure. Nevertheless, it
was considered important to obtain the Emperor's consent as
soon as possible, since the vague words of consolation and
encouragement that came from Madrid and Vienna were
anything but satisfactory to the Papal entourage.^
On March 31st the Pope sent a letter signed with his own
hand to the nuncio Litta in St. Petersburg,^ with the object
of obtaining the Tsar Paul's mediation.^ After a detailed
description of the French rule of force in Rome and the Papal
States and of his own deplorable situation he informed Litta
1 *Odescalchi to Albani, April 21, 1798 (ibid.).
- *Id. to id.. May 4, 1798 [ibid.].
» *Id. to id., May 25, 1798 [ibid.).
' *Original in Kunziat. di Polonia, 343 A (ibid.).
^ *Brief to Tsar Paul, j\Iarch 29, 1798 {Epist. ad princ, 194,
fo. 7 scqq., ibid.).
362 HISTORY OF THE POPES
that he had asked the Tsar, on the strength of their former
personal acquaintance, to speak to the French charge d'affaires
at his Court and to write to the French Directory, pressing for
the return of the possessions belonging to the Papal States,
Avignon and Venaissin in particular. An agreement on this
matter between Russia and the other northern powers was all
the more important, inasmuch as the French actions were
a danger to all sovereigns. The most recent oath with its
hatred of the monarchy was evidence of this.^ With this out-
spoken language, however, the Pope nearly brought fresh
troubles on himself, for at the beginning of September a report
was spreading in Florence that a French translation of the
Brief was in public circulation. ^
Litta's reply did, in fact, speak of the hvely interest taken
by the Tsar in the Pope's destiny,^ whereupon the latter wrote
to the nuncio on September 2nd, thanking him and again
condemning the behaviour of the French in detail and in
unambiguous terms. ^ The Tsar was to be asked to demand,
through his representatives at the Congress of Rastatt, the
restoration of the Papal States and all the stolen property. In
an autograph letter of December 14th ^ Tsar Paul I. expressed
his sympathy with the Pope and promised him his support,
in which he would endeavour to secure the co-operation of
the powers allied with him. These friendly relations with the
schismatic ruler came to an end, however, not long afterwards,
1 This connexion between the protection of the Church and that
of the State was also brought out by the Pope in his *Brief of
April 24, 1798, " loanni principi Brasihae " : " Quoad Ecclesiae
perniciem [sic] constituto quid a Regibus universis sit timendum
aperte vides. Quare qua ratione potes in causam incumbe ; non
enim Ecclesiam solum tueberc, sed regnum etiam tuum tuebere,
quod maximum in periculum vocari est necesse, si in eo statu, in
quo nunc est, diutius maneat Ecclesia Summusque Regum ac
Pastorum Pastor versetur." Epist. ad princ, 194, fo. 43 {ibid.).
* *Cifra al Litta, September 8, 1798 (Nunziat. di Polonia, ibid.).
3 *Litta to Odescalchi, July 13 (24), 1798 [ibid.).
* *Original, ibid., 343 A.
* *Tsar Paul to Pius VI., ibid., 344.
THE DUCHESS BRASCHI IN CONFINEMENT 363
when the Tsar accepted the direction of the Maltese Order,
and in consequence the nuncio Litta was compelled to leave
his court. ^
In the meantime the Pope had been forced to change his
place of residence. The French authorities in Rome had long
been seeking an opportunity of moving him still farther from
the frontiers of the Roman Repubhc and they now found a
welcome pretext in the disturbances that had broken out in
Perugia and Citta di Castello. First the clergy, then Duke
Braschi, and finally the Pope himself were held responsible for
them. The tyrants in Rome were not satisfied with the serious
reduction in the number of the priests in the Papal States that
had been brought about by arrests and expulsions, nor with
the holding in confinement of the Duchess Braschi.^ In a very
firmly worded letter to Ferdinand III. of Tuscany General
St-Cyr and the four French commissaries in Rome demanded
the immediate extradition of the Pope, who was to be taken to
Caghari, in Sardinia.^ The Grand Duke, in a courteous reply,
refused the request on the ground that negotiations were in
1 For the departure on April 28 (May 9), 1799, and the causes of
it, see Litta's *letters of May 31, 1799, from Bialystok, and
September 7, 1799, from Vienna {ibid.). Cf. our account.
Vol. XXXIX., 174-6.
- Baldassari, 233 seqq.
3 *Zondadari to Antonelli, May 22, 1798 {loc. cit., fo. 97 seq.) :
" Intanto le imprudenti insurrezioni dei contadini di Citta
di Castello (or terminate all' arrivo dei Francesi con tanto danno e
strage di quelli infelici) hanno dato moto a cento nuovi editti
contro li Ecclesiastici ed all' arresto della Duchessa Braschi, al di
cui marito si da la colpa dell' accaduto. Si passa pur troppo an cor
piu avanti e si desidera che ci slontaniamo, parlandosi dell' isola de
Sardegna. Per altro si tien forte per la negativa ed il Marchese
Mandredini, dopo aver spediti due canonici a Vienna e Parigi e di
aver ricevuta una forte memoria su tale oggetto del sig"" Cardinale
di Lorenzana, come ministro di Spagna, e partito per Roma.
Ne attendiamo in conseguenza con estrema ansieta il ritorno e
I'esito del suo operato." Cf. Gexdry, II. , 317 ; Celani, loc. cit.,
489 ; SciouT, Direcioire, II., 3, 320 seqq.
364 HISTORY OF THE POPES
progress between Paris and Madrid on the eventual trans-
ference of the Pope to Spain. ^ He also immediately dispatched
couriers to Vienna and Paris. Manfredini, whom he sent to
Rome,^ was the bearer of several medical certificates showing
the grave state of the Pope's health. It was clear from these
that if the Pope, who had again been prostrated with weakness
in the middle of April, were to undertake the projected sea
voyage his Ufe would be endangered. Another very energetic
protest was sent to Rome by Cardinal Lorenzana, who also
asked his Government and Azara, in Paris, to press strongly ^
for at least a refuge to be provided for the Pope in Spain,
which plan also seemed the best to Antonelli.^ The result of
all these efforts was that the authorities in Rome announced
their agreement to the temporary removal of the Papal Court
to the Certosa, near Florence, pending the arrival of news from
Paris about the final result of the negotiations with Spain. ^
The Pope's departure from Siena was facilitated by a natural
phenomenon. At about noon on May 26th, 1798, the Saturday
1 *Odescalchi to Mgr. Albani, May 18, 1798 (Nunziat. di
Germania, 696, loc. cit.).
2 *Zondadari to Antonelli, June 2, 1798 {loc. cit., fo. 99) :
' Questo preteso torto [responsibility for the insurrection in Citta
di Castello] produsse poi una istanza dei quattro Commissari di
Roma francesi e di quel Generale Saint-Cyr al Gran Duca, onde
fosse loro consegnata la persona di S. Santita, per transportarla
sopra una galera nella citta di Cagliari in Sardegna. La Corte
ricuso di farlo, e fu avvalorata la di lei ripulsa da una forte
rimostranza del sig^ Card, di Lorenzana, come ministro di Spagna.
Furono spediti dei corrieri a Parigi, Madrid e Vienna ed il sig""
Marchese Manfredini a Roma."
^ Baldassari, 237 seq.
■» *Antonelli to Emm. di Gregorio, July 5, 1798 [Relazione del
card. Antonelli, loc. cit., fo. 119 seqq.).
^ " *Non pote egli ottenere altro se non che, sino ai nuovi ordini
di Parigi, il Papa si trasferisse alia Certosa, due miglia discosta da
Firenze, ed il Duca Braschi escisse dallo Stato " {ibid.). Cf.
*Cifra al Litta, June 16, 1798 (Nunziat. di Polonia, Papal Secret
Archives) .
THE pope's removal TO FLORENCE 365
before Whitsun, the town was shaken by very violent earth-
tremors which damaged almost all the buildings and churches.^
Three persons were killed and many were injured. Pius VI.
was at prayer in his room, the only one in the convent to escape
damage, apart from some cracks in the walls. Caracciolo and
other clerics hurried to his assistance and found him com-
pletely calm and unperturbed.- For safety's sake he was
taken to the Villa Poggiarello, belonging to Venturi Gallerani,
and on the next day, as the forces of nature showed no sign of
abating, to the Torre Fiorentina, a country house outside the
town belonging to Filippo Sergardi. A minute after the Pope
had left the convent the vault of the sacristy of the chapel
of the Blessed Sacrament fell in ; the Archbishop of Siena
was covered with fragments of the wall of his room and
admitted that he had had a miraculous escape.^
As soon as the Grand Duke had heard what had happened
in Siena he had Lorenzana tell the Pope that everything
would be made ready for his reception in the Carthusian
monastery near Florence. On the morning of July 1st, after
five days in which there had been no less than fifteen violent
^ Brigidi, 199 seq. ; Baldassari, 240 seq.
2 Ihid., 241.
» *Zondadari to Antonelli, June 2, 1798 {loc. cit.) : "II Papa
non parti da Siena, ma bensi da una villa di Casa Sergardi poco
discosta dalla citta, ove egli era sine dalla scorsa domenica.
A tanti mail politici e religiosi, si e qui adesso accresciuto il
flagello dei terremoti. Fu il prime alle ore i ed un quarto dope il
mezzo giorno della vigilia di Pentecoste. Fu esse cosi violento che
non vi e nella citta chiesa o casa servibile. Tre persone son morte,
vari sono i feriti, e tutto h lutto e spavento. lo son vivo per
prodigio del cielo, giacche ricevei addosso alcuni sassi della stanza
nella quale stavo. Avevo di poco lasciato W° Signore, che unita-
mente a Mons'^ Nunzio corsi subito a cercare. La camera, nella
quale Egli diceva allora I'Ufficio, era Tunica intatta del suo
appartamento. Lo trasportammo nel quartiere terreno del
Cav''^ Venturi Gallerani ed il giorno dipoi nella predetta Villa
Sergardi, daddove e partito per Firenze." Gendry, IL, 318 ;
Brigidi, 204 seq., 212.
366 HISTORY OF THE POPES
earth-tremors, causing half the population to flee from the
town/ the Pope set out on his journey as bravely as ever and
reached his destination in the afternoon. ^
From the beginning his stay in the Certosa ^ was only to be
a temporary one, so from the first day here Pius VI. was
oppressed with anxiety about his future and, above all, the
fear that the projected removal to Sardinia might be realized
after all.^ There were rumours, too, of other places to which
the Directory were thinking of deporting him.^ Actually his
stay here eventually lasted nearly nine months, although
Azara's reports from Paris continually spoke of the Govern-
ment's serious intention of sending him to Cagliari. The
nuncio Casoni, in Madrid, on the other hand, was able to
report ^ that Azara was being instructed by the Spanish
Government to press that the Pope be allowed to stay where
he was, or failing that to continue his journey into Spanish
territory, where the king was ready to receive him with full
honours. While for week after week a final decision was
awaited from France, the Pope's health grew worse, so that
there was no longer any question of his attempting a sea
voyage. At the end of June, when there were hopes of definite
permission being given for the journey to Spain, fresh news
came from Azara that the Directory was inexorably set on
Sardinia.' The effect of this was to throw the Papal entourage
into another fit of despair and perplexity.
^ Brigidi, 203, 207.
2 Ibid., -zi^ seq. ; Gendry, II., 319. The date given by Celani
(489), " June 3," is -wrong.
' The Pope is commemorated by several inscriptions here ; the
most notable one is reproduced by Baldassari (270, n. i).
* *Odescalchi to Albani, June i, 1798 [loc. cit.).
^ To Portugal, Malta, and Brazil, among other places (De la
GoRCE, IV., 360).
" Casoni 's *report of June 4, 1798, enclosed in Odescalchi's
♦letter to Litta on June 23, 1798 (Nunziat. di Polonia, loc. cit.).
' *Spina to Antonelli, June 22, 1798 {loc. cit.) : " Nuovi rumori
si fan no sen tire ogni giorno di un trasporto a Cagliari. Scrive il
Cav'''^ Azzarra da Parigi che il Direttore Baras k fermo nel proposito
MONSIGNORE SPINA 367
Only a few days after his arrival at the Certosa the Pope
received a visit, bare of any ceremony, from the Grand Duke,
accompanied by Manfredini.^ On the other hand, the Pope
was deprived of the further presence of Duke Braschi, who
had to quit Tuscan territory at the command of the Roman
Government.^ He was succeeded as intendant of the Papal
household by Monsignore Spina, who had been made Bishop
in partihus by the Pope shortly before his expulsion from
Rome and who subsequently showed himself to be one of
the Pope's most trustworthy servants.^ This fidelity he
maintained until his master's death.
In his dealings with the outside world the Pope v/as now
even more restricted than in Siena. The Florentines and all
other strangers were forbidden to enter his apartments ;
instead, he had often to show himself at his window to the
people 'waiting below and give them his blessing.^ He was also
forced to give up his daily walk, the loss of which was probably
the cause of a rapid decline in his physical strength. After
a few months he was unable to hold himself erect. Odescalchi,
who continued to perform the office of a Secretary of State
and kept up the correspondence with the foreign nunciatures,
came from Florence to the Certosa three times a week and had
lengthy discussions with the Pope,^ the chief subjects being,
as before, the future destiny of the Holy Father and the
Sacred College and the preparations for the next conclave.
The brisk exchange of notes with Monsignore Albani in
Vienna was thus maintained, the Papal Court having as its
object the opening of negotiations with the French at the
Congress of Rastatt on two points : an improvement in the
Pope's position and the fixing of a suitable place for the
di non voler piu permettere al 5*° Padre 11 soggiorno in Italia."
*Odescalchi to Mgr. Albani, June 26, 1798 [loc. cit.).
1 Tavanti, III., 357 ; Baldassari, 267 seq.
2 Gendry, II., 321.
* Baldassari, 268.
^Tavanti, III., 355.
* Baldassari, 271.
368 HISTORY OF THE POPES
conclave.^ Albani had had a personal audience with the
Emperor at the end of May, when the latter had informed him
that he had the greatest possible sympathy with the Pope in
his present plight and held out hopes of providing the desired
assistance.^ The intervention at the Congress of Rastatt,
which was in the hands of Count Kobenzl, together with the
attempts at mediation made by Spain in Paris, had at least
this success, that the Directory also declared itself in
favour of allowing the existing conditions to continue for the
nonce. ^
Kobenzl's instructions proposed that the Pope and all the
Cardinals, including those who had taken refuge in the
kingdom of Naples,^ be allowed to travel to Venice. Finally,
at the request of Austria, Pius VI. invited all the members of
the Sacred College to repair to the territory that had just
become an Imperial possession by the peace of Campo Formio.^
This invitation, however, met with little response, least of all
from the Cardinals in Southern Italy, who included the
Cardinal Dean, Giovanni Francesco Albani.^ That their
object was the holding of the conclave in Naples was denied
by the Dean ; if possible, he said, the election should take
place in the city of St. Peter, seeing that it was the Bishop of
Rome who was in question.' Albani hoped that Rome would
shortly be hberated, and clearly felt more secure in Naples
than anywhere else. How wrong he was in his reckoning was
soon shown by the course of events : Naples was taken by the
1 *Odescalchi to Mgr. Albani, June 8, 1798 {loc. cit.).
2 *Id. to id., June 16, 1798 (ibid.).
3 *Id. to id., August II, 1798 (ibid.).
* Correspondence between the clerics in Siena and those in
Naples was not too frequent ; v. *Spina to Antonelli, June 22,
1798 : " lo non sono in corrispondenza con alcuno di essi "
{loc. cit.).
* Baldassari, 274.
* Maury's letter to Albani, of June 16, 1798, inviting him to
come to Venice, in Celani, loc. cit., 493 seq.
' Baldassari, 276 seq.
ANTONELLl'S MEMORANDUM 369
French and the Cardinals scattered in all directions ; most of
them, however, soon reassembled in Venetia.^
At the beginning of June AntonelH sent the Curia a lengthy
memorandum containing various proposals. ^ The Archbishop
of Siena replied on the 20th that they had been recommended
by him to the Pope,^ and on the 22nd Spina wrote * that he
had laid them before the Pope and had also recommended
them, but only for the greatest part. This restriction referred
to the project of re-erecting all the curial offices in the place
of banishment. This, in Spina's view, was impossible ; for
one thing there was no hope of maintaining them there, and
secondly no prelate was allowed to stay more than two days
at the Pope's place of residence. Antonelh's other proposals
also did not meet with complete approval. Thus, the idea of
issuing another Bull with further facihties for holding the
next Papal election was objected to by the Pope on the score
that the Bull of January 3rd, 1797,^ was quite sufficient,
especially as it had been signed by most of the Cardinals.
Antonelli also urged that the Sacred College, which now
numbered only forty-eight members, be brought up to
strength by new nominations. But in this, too, he was unsuc-
cessful, the Pope objecting that in the circumstances it would
be more difficult to convoke seventy electors than forty-eight.
Besides, he did not know how he could endow the new members.
Antonelli had more success in his efforts to obtain the accep-
tance of Antici's and Altieri's resignations.^
A discussion on the need for new regulations concerning the
Papal election could not be rejected out of hand, however, as
1 Ibid., 277.
2 *Antonelli to Spina, June 2, 1798 {loc. cit., loi seqq.). Cf.
Celani, 490 seqq.
^ *Zondadari to Antonelli, June 20, 1798 [loc. cit., 109).
* *Spina to Antonelli, June 22, 1798 [Relazione del card.
Antonelli, loc. cit., fo. iii seqq.).
^ Text in Sala, Diario di Roma, III., 2g j seqq. ; Bull. Cant.,
VI., 3, 2976 seqq. ; Gendry, II., 325. Cf. also the Brief of
February 11, 1798, in Gendry, 484.
• See above, p. 338.
VOL. XL. B b
370 HISTORY OF THE POPES
fresh and unexpected difficulties had arisen since the signing
of the last Bull. At that time the choice of a suitable place of
assembly had been left to the majority of the Cardinals, a
regulation which now had httle point. But the draft of the
new text submitted by Antonelh met with no approval and
was passed to Marotti and Spina to be worked over/ the Pope
stating that the former Bull was fundamentally satisfactory
and that all that was needed was a fuller explanatory text.
Antonelh's opinion was that nothing more should be demanded
than the canonical election and that the fixing of the place and
time should be entrusted to the Dean and a few others.
Another draft was composed by Monsignore di Pietro ; this
met with more approval and its advantages were recognized
by Antonelli among others.^
Finally a new Bull was signed by Pius VI. on November 13th,
1798,3 and at the beginning of March it was sent to the senior
Cardinal residing in Venetia. The facilities, it was stated
therein, which had been granted in the Bull of the previous
year concerning the Papal election were no longer adequate, in
view of the fresh outrages that had been committed against the
Church and its head. He was consequently granting new
facilities so that in the event of his death his successor might
be elected as speedily and conveniently as possible. The Dean
and three or four of the most respected dignitaries were to
settle the place and time of the election, which was to be held
without any of the usual ceremonies and would result from a
two-thirds majority. The Cardinals were permitted to discuss
the circumstances, but not the personal aspect, of the future
election. To avoid a schism, the right to vote was to belong to
those Cardinals who were assembled in the greatest number in
the territory of a Catholic ruler. Of their number the Dean or
the next senior Cardinal was to fix the details. The Bull ended
1 *Spina to Antonelli, September i, 1798 [loc. cit., 125 seqq.).
Antonelli replied by means of a long *memorandum addressed to
the Pope, dated September 17 [ihid., 132-9).
2 Baldassari, 278 seq. ; Bull. Cont., VI., 3, 3097 seq.
^ Bull. Cont., VI., 3, 3097. Cf. Gendry, II., 327 seq. ; Mourret,
VII., 275 ; Baldassari, 280 seq.
PIUS VI. S CONFIDENCE IN GOD 37I
with an impressive appeal to the electors to remember their
responsibility and duty, more than ever at a time when the
Church was so hard pressed.
-Pius VI. and his trusty companions bore their distress and
suffering with an admirable courage and confidence in the
future welfare of the Church. In everything that happened
they saw the will of God, who in His great mercy would direct
all things for the good of the Faith. ^ The Pope also derived
comfort and joy from the numerous letters that reached him
from every part of the Church ^ ; njost of them contained not
1 *[Spina] to Antonelli, October 12, 1798 {loc. cit., fo. 156) :
" Vedo dunque nel tutto delle linee particolari di providenza,
onde mi pare di dover sperare che il misericordiosissimo Iddio le
dirigera tutte alia conservazione della Chiesa e della nostra Santa
Religione. Questo solo mi conforta ; e piaccia a Iddio che le mie
lusinghe non siano vane." Perhaps the best expression of these
sentiments is to be found in the *Brief of July 24, 1798, to the
Countess de Fernan-Nunez, thanking her for her sympathy :
" Verum cum promissum habeamus a Christo se usque ad con-
summationem saeculi nobiscum futurum ; cumque sciamus
Ecclesiam Dei semper in tribulationibus auctam esse et Martyrum
sanguinem semen fuisse Christianorum, excitemus iidem nostram
et in oratione et patientia promissam Nobis a Deo opem et
optatam tranquillitatem praestolemur. Non enim semper dormiet
Deus, sed expergefactus a somno imperabit ventis et mari osten-
detque tantam hanc tempestatem, non ad Petri naviculam
demergendam, sed ad eam altius extollendam ad Deique gloriam
manifestandam esse excitatam " (Papal Secret Archives, Epist. ad
princ, 194, fo. 67). A similar Brief was sent *to the Archbishop of
Compostela on November i, 1798 {ibid., fo. iiose^.).
- " *Consolemur nos invicem," wrote the Pope, " Archiepiscopo
Rliemensi aliisque Galliae ep.," in a Brief dated " Florentiae
Non. luni 1798 " [loc. cit., fo. 37). Similar *letters of thanks were
sent to the same dignitaries on July 30, 1798 [ibid., fo. 48) ;
" Archiepiscopo Auscitano " on September 20, 1798 {ibid.,
fo. 72) ; " Archiepiscopo Compostellano Cal. Nov. 1798 " {ibid.,
fo. 92) ; " Episcopo Forlivino " on April 28, 1798 {ibid., fo. 22) ;
" Episcopo Alexandrine " on July 18, 1798 {ibid., fo. 47) ; to the
Archbishop-Elector of Trier on October 9, 1798 {ibid., fo. 88 ;
372 HISTORY OF THE POPES
only expressions of grief and sympathy but also promises of
prayers and material support. The one that impressed him
most deeply, perhaps, was from comrades in distress, namely
the fourteen French Bishops in English exile.^ He sent a
touching letter in reply, ^ praising their self-sacrifice for the
Church of God. The chief value of all their present distress, he
wrote, was the separation of the true children of the Church
from mere hypocrites. Of pecuhar interest was his meeting
with the King and Queen of Savoy, who had also been driven
from their throne and country by the French in December,
1798, and were to be banished to Sardinia. Little is known of
what was said by the three dethroned rulers in their half hour's
conversation of January 19th, 1799, but the hard fate in store
for all of them must have lent their words sincerity.^ But
in view of his serious ill-health, he must have heard with pain
the question put to him by a French officer of the name of
Chipault : would he not care to accompany the royal couple
to CagHari, for the Directory's decision as to his destination
was irrevocable ? ^
During the winter the Pope's health became so bad that his
life was in danger. As Chipault was constantly pressing for his
thanking him for 15,000 scudi) ; to the Archbishop of Salzburg
on January 10, 1799 {tbid., fo. 118). On November 20, 1798, the
cathedral chapter of Augsburg *wrote to the chapter of Salzburg
suggesting that its own example be followed in collecting money
for the Pope. On December 12, 1798, the chapter *asked the
Archbishop what was to be done. The latter *replied on
December 22, 1798, advising against the suggestion, on the ground
that the times were too bad (Landesarchiv, Salzburg, Wiener
Akten, Litt. C89).
' Baldassari, 295 seq. ; Tavanti, III., 370.
* *Brief " Archiepiscopis et episcopis Galhae pro Christo in
Anglia exulantibus ", of November 10, 1798 [Epist. ad princ,
loc. cit., fo. 97-1 11).
' Gendry, II., 375. Cf. *Odescalchi to Litta on January 19,
1799 (Nunziat. di Polonia, loc. cit.) ; Tavanti, III., 356
(" January 28 " is wrong) ; De la Gorge, IV., 363 ; Baldassari,
304 seqq.
* *Cifra al Litta, March 16, 1799 (Nunziat. di Polonia, loc. cit.).
THE POPE S PRECARIOUS HEALTH 373
transference to Sardinia, the best physicians in the capital
were called in to report on the Pope's condition. Their testi-
mony made it clear that the conveyance of the patient to
Leghorn, not to speak of a sea voyage, was out of the question,
as it would use up what little strength was left to him.^ At
1 *Copy of the medical attestation made on February 7, 1799,
and forming the second enclosure in the " Cifra al Litta " of
February 9, 1799 [ibid.) : " Noi infrascritti Medici Fisici facciamo
per la verita piena, ed indubitata fede, come essendosi trovati
nella mattina di questo sudetto giorno adunati nel Monastero
della Certosa presso Firenze per I'oggetto di essere informati dello
stato fisico di S. S*^^ Papa Pio VI., e quelle personalmente
riconoscere, siamo in primo luogo accertati la predetta S.S.
essere stata per lungo tempo affetta di iscuria, ed aver piu volte
sofferte minacce indicatissime di malattie soporose, per le quali si
e trovata in una permanente sospensione delle funzioni animali,
e ci siamo di poi assicurati, ch'Egli e affetto di ernia, o sia entero-
epiplocele sciolto, ed ha una grande, e permanente debolezza
deir estremita inferiori, avendo ancora la cute delle sue gambe da
lunga mano molto alterata, nella tessitura della quale per ogni
leggiera causa si rompe la continuita e si dispone a piegarsi e
quindi ripetendo il principio de suoi attuali incommodi, ci siamo
assicurati, come dal di ventiquattro del po p" Gennaro fu sorpreso
da nuova affezione comatosa con febbre, per sollevarlo dalla quale
le furono per sentimento deirHl™° ed Ecc™° Sig. Giuseppe Petri
archiatro delle LL. AA. RR. applicati due vesicatori alle cosce,
dai quali avendo ricevuto un sollievo in riguardo della detta
affezione comatosa, ne vi porto all' incontro il disastro d'essersi
il sinistro de medesimi vesicatori, cioe la piaga da questo prodotta,
infiammata con principi di cangrena, ed in seguito d'essersi
manifestata in capo a cinque giorni una vasta resipola estesa dal
metatarso fino al capo della fibula della sinistra gamba. Abbiamo
di piu osservato, che dopo d'essersi limitata la suddetta resipola,
si e alia S.S. aggravate il petto con respirazione laboriosa, tosse
frequente, e principio di stertore, accompagnato da sputi vischiosi
mischiati di sangue, aridita di lingua, e di labbra, e di orine
cariche, in tempo che la coscia corrispondente alia stessa gamba
resipolata si trova edematosa, e le piaghe dei vessicanti sono
tuttora aperte et avendo avuto luogho di trattenersi nella camera
ove Egli giace per esaminarc tutto con diligenza, abbiamo
374 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the end of January he had further attacks of cramp, was very
feverish, and had difficulty in breathing, so that there were
already thoughts of giving him Extreme Unction.^ Two weeks
later two French commissaries convinced themselves by a
personal visit of his desperate condition ; he was more like a
riscontrato, che le necessarie benche minime funzioni del sue
corpo, come per esempio il bevere, non si possono da Lui eseguire
senza molto affannarsi e senza Taiuto di piii e varie persone che
lo sollievino dalla grave prostrazione, in cui si trova, tanta e la
depressione di forze, nella quale Egli e costituito.
Per lo che ben ponderati i motivi fin qui esposti abbiamo
d'unanimo consentimento asserito, che prescindendo affatto
dair attuale malattia, che offende il petto della S.S., e che minaccia
molto appresso la di Lui esistenza, e supponendo per la piu
vantaggiosa ipotesi, ch'Egli possa emergere dalla medesima, lo
spossamento della sua machina esser tale, che attese tutte le
circostanze, non puo far altro, che aumentarsi oltre lo stato
attuale, e che un uomo costituito in circostanze tali, se per
qualsivoglia causa si determinasse a muoversi in qualunque si
voglia immaginare anche commodissima forma, non potrebbe in
niun viaggio considerabile, non esporsi all' evidente pericolo
d'accelerare quel fine, che secondo I'ordine naturale non puo
credersi assai remoto per unTndividuo, che in mezzo a tante
vicende, e carico di tanti fisici pregiudizi ha superato di molto i
sedici Lustri, ed in fede
lo Dott. Spirito Costanzo Marmajoni, uno dei dodici esamina-
tori del Collegio Medico Fiorentino, ed il primo dei medici
addetti al servizio dei monaci della Certosa presso Firenze
aftermo quanto in questo si dice, e contiene, ed in fede mo.
ppa.
lo Dott. Attilio Zuccagni Medico ordinario del regio arcis-
pedale di S. Maria Nuova, censore regio per la stampa, e
prefetto dell'orto botanico del Museo Reale affermo quanto in
questo si dice e contiene, ed in fede mo. ppa.
lo Dott. Pio Batista Betti Medico Fiorentino affermo quanto
in questo si dice, e contiene, ed in fede mo. ppa.
Id Dott. Pio Batista Canovai Medico Fiorentino affermo
quanto in questo si dice, e contiene, ed in fede mano ppa."
1 Gendry, II. , 376 ; Baldassari, 308 seq. ; " *Cifra al Litta ",
January 26, 1799 {loc. cit.).
A SLIGHT IMPROVEMENT 375
corpse, they said, than a hving person. ^ Shortly afterwards
there was a shght improvement ; with extreme difficulty he
was able to drag himself from bed and sit on a chair close by.^
It was in this enfeebled condition, though so contented and
lively in his mind, that he had little thought of imminent
death, that he celebrated the opening of the twenty-fifth year
of his pontificate,^ the end of which, however, he was not
destined to see. On this day Spina had a portable altar brought
near the sick-bed, so that the Holy Father could again after
a long interval attend Mass and communicate. For this
attention he was deeply grateful to the Monsignore, who had
also obtained from Rome the liturgical instructions for such
an occasion.^ The rareness of the Pope's communions at this
1 Celani, loc. cit., 506 ; " *Cifra al Litta," February g, 1799
{loc. cit.). A second *letter to Litta, of the same date, was written
entirely " in clear " — -a remarkable fact which was certainly not
an oversight. In it the Pope thanked the Tsar for offering to come
to his aid with an armed force, but firmly declined the offer. The
letter was probably meant to be read ! Ibid.
- *Spina to Antonelli, February 8, 1799 [loc. cit., fo. 237).
3 *Spina to Antonelli, February 15, 1799 {ibid., fo. 239) : " La
piu importante certamente e la salute preziosissima di S. S''', il
quale felicemente ha principiato in quest' hoggi I'anno XXV. del
suo Pontificate. Pare che il Sig"" Iddio per sua infinita misericordia
abbia esaudite le preghiere di tutti i buoni, gia che, se bene S. S*^
continui in uno stato di debolezza veramente grande e dal quale
non so se potra risorgere, nel rimanente poi da due giorni partico-
larmente a questa parte si trova in uno stato da esserne ben
contenti."
* " *Questa mattina istessa ho colto un momento opportuno
per pregarlo a permettermi di far erigere nella camera vicina al
letto un altare portatile, accio possa la mattina ascoltare la
S. Messa con tutto il comodo, aggiungendogli che, se desiderava,
non potendo celebrar la S. Messa, di far la communione, mi ero gia
provveduto da Roma delle istruzioni necessarie per far tutto con
decenza. Egli ha mostrato di gradire il mio pensiere ; onde spero
che si principiera domenica a metterlo in esecuzione " (ibid.) Cf.
Gendry, II. , 379 ; Celani, loc. cit., 508 ; " *Cifra al Litta,"
February 16, 1799 [loc. cit.).
37^ HISTORY OF THE POPES
period was causing his companions some concern. On hearing
of it Cardinal Antonelli made so bold, being the first of his
creatures, as to write him a letter, dated March 3rd, 1799,^
and beautifully composed, on the blessings of the holy sacrifice
and communion. He was particularly desirous that he should
celebrate Mass sitting, as had been done by Benedict XIV.
The letter was read to the Pope by Spina,^ but in his reply
of March 9th,^ Pius declined to act on the suggestion, being
unwilling to do what had once been refused to a highly
respected Archbishop and would surely result in a series of
similar petitions on the part of the episcopate in cases which
were not as bad. Spina, however, was able to assure the
anxious Cardinal that His Holiness would receive Communion
again without fail on Holy Thursday.*
Even in these circumstances the French Directory showed
itself to be incorrigible and continued to insist that the Pope's
transference to Sardinia be carried out as soon as possible.
On March 10th Chipault presented another of his Government's
orders for departure, which was shown to be impracticable by
further medical certificates and a declaration by the Pope
himself.^ But this made no impression on the Directory ;
a week passed and then another courier arrived — the fourth
within a short time — from Florence, with the information that
the Directory was now making the Grand Duke personally
responsible for the prompt execution of the order.^
Ferdinand HI. assured the nuncio Odescalchi that he had no
intention of pressing the Pope. Nevertheless, on March 18th,
when the nuncio broached the matter to the Pope, Pius replied
with unexpected composure and decisiveness that if the French
were hoping to make it an excuse for occupying Tuscany they
1 *Antonelli to the Pope, March 3, 1799 {loc. cit., fo. 260 seqq.).
^ *Spina to Antonelli, March 8, 1799 {loc. cit., fo. 264).
^ Pius VI. to Antonelli, March 9, 1799, reproduced in Celani,
loc. cit., 511 seq.
* *Spina to Antonelli, March 16, 1799 {loc. cit., fo. 268).
^ Tavanti, III., ^^6 seq. ; Baldassari, 310.
* Ibid., 315 seq. ; Gendry, II., 378.
THE POPE MOVED TO PARMA 377
were not to have it ; he was absolutely ready to depart.^
Odescalchi was about to journey in advance to Leghorn to
make the necessary arrangements when at the last minute
another message came that Reinhard, the French ambassador
in Florence, insisted on the Pope remaining where he was and
would take the responsibility for the consequences on himself.^
But the Directory had other intentions. It had already laid
before the Council of the Five Hundred the proposal that war
be declared against Austria and Tuscany, and the proposal
was now accepted.^ The news of this reached Florence on
March 21st. Three days later, on Easter Sunday, the Revolu-
tionary troops entered the Grand Duchy, and on the 25th they
were outside the gates of the capital. On the following morning
a detachment of soldiers with two officers arrived at the
Certosa and declared it to be under occupation though without
questioning the security of the Pope.^ A day or two afterwards,
while Ferdinand III. was being driven from his throne and
country, Pius VI. received the order to leave for Parma
immediately.^ There was no mention of any further destina-
tion, though in all probability it had already been decided to
take him across the Alps.
" God's will be done ! " With these words the Pope
accepted the command and with resolution and willingness
prepared himself for departure on the morning of March 28th,
1799.^ Both his legs and part of his body being paralysed, he
was quite unable to move, and his rigid body, convulsed with
pain, had to be lifted into the carriage by four of the strongest
servants.' The first day's journey was extremely tiring and
1 Baldassari, 317.
2 Ibid., 318 ; *Odescalchi to Litta, March 18, 1799 {loc. cit.).
3 De la Gorge, IV., 364 ; Baldassari, 321.
■■ Baldassari, 324 scq. ; Tavanti, III., 379 ; Sala, Diario di
Roma, III., 229 seq.
* Gaultier's order of March 29, 1799 (in the archives in Parma),
in A. G. ToNONi, // prigioniero apostolico Pio VI. nei ducati
Parniensi (April 1-18, 1799), Parma, 1896, 29 seqq. Cf. Poncet, 45.
• Baldassari, 327.
' Ibid., 328.
378 HISTORY OF THE POPES
when Maschera was reached in the evening the Pope's con-
dition was so alarming that no one thought that the journey
could be successfully completed.^ Nevertheless, the snow-
covered Apennines were crossed on the next day, during which
Pius VI. lay in a delirium. At Bologna, the citadel of revolu-
tionary life, the distinguished party was received with all the
honours and attentions that befitted it. The military provided
a guard for the Pope's quarters and even plaj^ed him a
serenade. 2
From Bologna the journey was continued by way of
Modena, where Cardinal Livizzani and the Bishop provided the
best possible accommodation,^ and Reggio to Parma, where
at the instigation of the duke the party was given shelter in
the great monastery of St. John the Evangelist. In spite of the
copious rain, the inhabitants along the route between Bologna
and Parma turned out in large numbers to show their
sympathy. At Parma, too, where the weather was still most
unfa\'ourable, immense crowds were in the streets to greet the
Pope, who by now had not even the strength to raise his hand
in blessing.^ On the day after his arrival personal visits were
paid him by the duke, also by the duchess and her children and
many of the most important inhabitants.^ For the next few
days the invalid was allowed to rest.
On April 10th, however, a fresh order came from .the French
generalissimo that the Pope was to start out for Turin within
two hours. ^ When this news was imparted to the Pope his
whole body was seized by a kind of paralysis, and his departure
had to be postponed. The inhabitants' indignation at the
French commander's heartlessness soon took threatening
forms. '^ Skilful physicians and diplomatic representatives
1 Ibid., 329.
^ Ibid., 330 scq.
^ At Modena the Pope was publicly insulted (Baldassari, 334 ;
TONONI, 7).
* ToNONi, 8 seq.
^ Ibid., 9 seq. ; Tavanti, III., 379 ; Baldassari, 340 seq.
" Baldassari, 342 seq. ; Tononi, ii seq.
' Baldassari, 344 seqq.
FROM PARMA TO TURIN 379
prepared fresh memoranda on the dangerous state of the
Pope's health/ but to no purpose. The French, fearing the
victorious advance of the Austrians, insisted on the journey
being continued without delay, unless the duke was willing to
expose his country to immediate military occupation and a
political revolution at the hands of the Republican army.^
On hearing of this threat the Pope made up his mind, as he
had done in Florence, to leave the town as soon as possible.
On the morning of April 14th he was accompanied to the
frontier by mounted Parmesans.^ Though hope was steadily
receding, he made not the slightest complaint or gave any sign
of indignation, but abandoned himself to what might yet
befall him.
The next stopping-places after Parma were Borgo San
Donnino, where Cardinal Gonzaga, who had taken refuge there,
and the Bishop received the Pope in a befitting manner, and
the missionary college of San Lazzaro, outside Piacenza, a
foundation of Cardinal Alberoni's.* When the journey was
resumed a detour was made to avoid the town, whose gates had
been closed to prevent the inhabitants streaming out to greet
the Pope. Suddenly, however, the order came to turn back
at once owing to the anticipated advance of the enemy's
armies. This time the people of Piacenza were successful in
having the Pope pass through their town, to the immense joy
of the countless throngs of the faithful. The missionary college
was only too glad to have the Holy Father back within its
walls. ^ On the same day, however, the order was given for the
journey to be continued by another route. This, owing to the
hardships that had just been endured and the extreme
exhaustion of the Pope, was impracticable. The prelate's
^ ToNONi, 15 5^^. ; Baldassari, ^46 seq. The continuation of
the journey was also impeded by natural forces, such as the
" grosso torrente Taro " which was found impossible to cross.
* Baldassari, 349 ; Poncet, 49.
* TONONI, 16.
* Tavanti, III., 280 seq. ; Tononi, 16 seqq. ; Baldassari, 353.
* Baldassari, 355 seqq. ; Tononi, 19 seqq. ; Gendry, II., 408.
380 HISTORY OF THE POPES
refusal to move gave rise to altercations with the French
ofificers/ who were anxious about the security of the hostages
entrusted to their care ; the bridge across the Po had already
been occupied by the mihtary and it was said that the thunder
of the enemy's guns had been heard in the town.^
The Papal party set out very early the next day and two
laborious hours were spent in crossing the swollen Trebbia by
means of a flying bridge, from which a coach and a horse fell
into the floods, the latter having to be left to drown. ^ At
Castel San Giovanni the local officials, disregarding the
annoyance of the French, paid the Pope all the honours due to
his position and showed their grief at his pitiable plight. In
the evening the people assembled in the church with their
parish priest, to pray for the Holy Father, whom they had
seen being carried like a lifeless corpse by two of his domestics
into the quarters prepared for him. The party was joined here
by the former Spanish ambassador, Pedro Labrador, who
henceforward was to represent Cardinal Lorenzana in his
dealings with the Pope but for a long time was unable to
enter his presence.* Here, as at Parma and Borgo San Donnino,
the Pope's stay is recorded in inscriptions.^ The next day the
frontier of the Duchy of Parma was left behind and the sick and
aged man, utterly exhausted, was carried on to Voghera,
Tortona, and Alessandria, where there was a day's rest,
rendered still more welcome by the kindly hospitahty offered
by the Bishop. The party then proceeded via Casale di
Monserrato and Crescentino to Turin. In all the smaller towns
full honours were paid to their exalted guest, not only by the
civil and military officials and the people, but also by the
French commandant.^ To avoid demonstrations in the
formerly royal city of Turin arrangements were made for
the Pope's carriage to arrive there at night by unfrequented
1 Baldassari, 358.
^ ToNONi, 21 seq.
3 Baldassari, 361 ; Tononi, 23.
* Baldassari, 362 ; Gendry, II., 408 seq. ; Tononi, 24 seq.
* Tononi, 27.
" Baldassari, 363 seqq.
OVER THE ALPS TO BRIANgON 381
routes.^ Although the Pope was so worn out as hardly to be
conscious, he was apprised of the order to set out again at
dawn on the following day. But the preparations for the drive
over the mountains were so meticulous and troublesome that
no move could be made until it was nearly midnight.^ At
Susa the Pope and his companions learnt to the dismay of the
latter than instead of Grenoble, as had been formerly intended,
the far more cheerless Brian^on had been fixed as their place of
residence.^ From Susa onwards the Pope, having been made
to abandon his carriage, was conveyed in a litter borne by
four relays of four servants each, while the rest of the party
had to be content with mules. The way led through steep
walls of snow and precipitous rocky gorges, over brushwood
and narrow, swaying bridges. At times the route had been
rendered undistinguishable by masses of freshly fallen snow.
In spite of the bittei^cold not a word of complaint came from
the sick old man ; on the contrary, he encouraged his com-
panions.'* When the frontier between Italy and France was
crossed on April 30th the name of the village on the Italian
side, Cesana, may well have awakened in his mind mournful
memories of his distant birthplace, with its similarly sounding
name, Cesena.
The track led through deep snow and slush and over slippery
ice to the top of Mont-Genevre,^ then down to Briangon,
a lonely mountain hamlet with seven decayed forts. Here the
party was accommodated in the commandant's house in
extremely confined and uncomfortable quarters. Apart from
a few hostile demonstrations the poor Alpine population
showed a touching sympathy with the Pope in his misfortune.^
1 Ibid., 369 seqq. ; Tavanti, III., 381.
2 Baldassari, 372 seq.
' Ibid., 375.
* Ibid., 377 seqq. ; Poncet, 51 ; Gendry, II., 410; Tavanti,
III., 382 ; the crossing is illustrated in Reynaud, Pie a Valence,
lo-ii ; cf. ibid., 11.
^ Baldassari, 380.
* Ibid., 381, 383 seqq. ; Poncet, 52 seq. ; Franclieu, Pie VI.
382 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Life in Briangon was, indeed, monotonous and trying,
especially as the Pope, henceforward referred to merely as
" citoyen pape ", was treated as the hostage of a State which
had carried out the most terrible persecution of the clergy of
modern times and whose final aim was the destruction of the
Papacy. Only once did the noise of the outside world penetrate
to this remote and lonely spot. After two weeks had been
spent here the rumour arose that General Suvarov, with
German and Russian troops, was on his way to Susa and the
mountains for the purpose of freeing the Pope.^ The local
French commissary, Berard, insisted on the party moving
further into France, accusing the Pope and his companions of
treacherous intrigues with the enemy. The Pope's condition
showing no improvement, it was found impossible to move
him, but his chief companions were taken away from him.^
On June 8th, after bidding him an affecting farewell and
receiving his blessing, they left for Grenoble, where they were
treated as prisoners of State. ^ The confessor Fantini and two
valets stayed behind with the Pope at Brian^on.
In less than three weeks the Pope, now almost a complete
cripple, hardly able to stand, ^ had to follow his companions
to Grenoble, in spite of the physicians' energetic protests and
a heavy fall of snow which persisted despite the advanced
season of the year.^ The journey was made by carriage in
the shortest possible stages, and everywhere the Pope was
greeted and escorted not only by the curious but also — and
these were far more numerous — ^by faithful adherents of the
dans les prisons du Dauphine, Montreuil, ^1892, 15 seq., 251 seq.
Cf. the letter from an inhabitant of Brian9nn in Leclercq,
Martyrs, XIII., 'jo'seq.
1 Baldassari, 387, 391; Gendrv, II., 411 ; Tavanti, III.,
391 seq.
2 Leclercq, Martyrs, XIII., 72.
3 Baldassari, 397-402 seqq.
* PONCET, 55.
* Baldassari, 408 seq. The cost of the stay in Brian^on is set
out in Leclercq, XIII., 76 seq.
THE POPE IN GRENOBLE 383
Church. 1 He was pleasantly surprised on reaching Grenoble on
July 6th to be offered accommodation in her chateau by a lady
of distinction, the Marquise de Vaux.^ A huge crowd outside
the house kept on calling for the Pope's blessing until he was
carried on to the balcony. When he appeared the square rang
to the shouts of jubilation, among which were heard unmis-
takable imprecations against the French commissary.^ It was
only after great difficulties that the Pope's companions who
had preceded him were allowed to rejoin him. But as the
time originally allotted for the Pope's stay in Grenoble had to
be extended on medical instructions — the final destination
had still not yet been reached — some of the prelates had again
to go on in advance on July 9th. Among them were Spina,
Caracciolo, Marotti, and Baldassari.^ The last-named entered
in his notebooks all the details of the Pope's long journey into
exile.^ Meanwhile the government of the Department of
Drome was also making all the necessary arrangements for
the accommodation in Valence of the " former so-called
Pope ".
On July 10th Grenoble was left behind and the journey was
again continued in short daily stages.^ According to report
1 Gendry, II., 412 ; Lfxlercq, 79 seqq. ; Tavanti, III.,
393 seq.
- Baldassari, 413 ; Poncet, 57 ; Franclieu, g'j seqq.
3 Gendry, II., 416 ; Tavanti, III., 395. Labrador wrote from
here that this continual worrying of the aged Pope was more
inhuman than killing him straight off (to the commissary Real,
July 5, 1799 ; in Franclieu, 288 seq.).
* Gendry, II., 420 seq. Illustration of the entry into Grenoble
in Reynaud, 12-13. Cf. also Franclieu for a complete account.
* Relazione delle avversitd e patimenti del glorioso Papa Pio VI.
negli iiltimi ire anni del suo pontificato, Roma, 1840,^ Modena,
1840-3. The German translation, by Fr. X. Steck (Tubingen,
1844), which we have used, was based on the French edition by
De Lacouture (Paris, 1839), which in its turn was based on the
first publication of the work in the Modtnese periodical Memorie
di religione, di morale e di letteratura.
® Gendry, II., 4165^9.; Baldassari, 423. General Merck,
whose book. La captivite et la mort de Pie VI. (Londres, 1814),
384 HISTORY OF THE POPES
the people assembled to greet the Pope were most numerous
at Romans. Girls dressed in white walked before him strewing
flowers. When the shutters of his carriage were let down the
people broke out into threats until they were again allowed to
view his sacred person. ^ Arrived at his quarters he had again to
be carried on to the balcony, where he blessed the crowd
shouting out to see him.-
The long awaited travelling carriage finally reached Valence
on the morning of July 14th and the dying Pope's last journey
was at an end. He was declared to be an ordinary prisoner of
the French Republic ^ and was allotted as a dwelling the
so-called Hotel dii Gouvernement, a three-storied building in
the middle of the citadel, lying between the courtyard and the
garden. According to the accounts of the Department com-
missary Curnier, the old building had been left unused and
neglected for a long time before the arrival of the Pope.* The
furniture and even some of the doors had gone, the wallpaper
was worn away, and the beds in the few rooms that could be
locked were rotting with age. Through the kindness of the
inhabitants, especially the local gentry, the house had quickly
been rendered habitable, and now offered quite good quarters.^
was pubhshed by his widow, puts a good complexion on his
actions both on this as on other occasions. His book makes no
attempt at historical accuracy. Baldassari (viii) calls it pure
fiction. For Spina's protest against Merck, v. Gendry, II.,
4x4, n. 3. Reynaud (ii seq.), however, accepts these fairy -stories
in his jubilee publication.
^ Baldassari, 425 seq. ; Tavanti, III., 396 ; Franclieu,
145 seq. ; Poncet, 84 seq. ; ibid., 86 seqq., an officer's report.
2 Baldassabti, 428 seq.
* Ibid., 433 seq.
* PoNCET, 63. In 1874 the building was replaced by cavalry
barracks (Franclieu, 253).
^ Baldassari, 421 seqq. The Marquise de Veynes and Madame
Championnet were especially prominent in this charitable work.
Cf. Gendry, II., 414 ; Leclercq, XIII. , 97 seqq. ; Reynaud,
13 ; PoNCET, 66 ; Tavanti, III., 397. On July 15, 1799, the Pope
sent a *Brief of thanks " Francisco archiep. Valentino " for
his gifts, lamenting that " in dies gravius urgimur incommode
THE PRISONER OF VALENCE 385
From his bedroom the Pope could enjoy a view of the majestic
course of the Rhone and the chains of hills that rose beyond it.^
Ample precautions had been taken for the guarding of the
Pope : the posts outside the Papal apartments were per-
manently manned by two officers and more than ten men, and
the vicinity of the house was patrolled to prevent a crowd
assembling. 2 Strangers were admitted only with the per-
mission of the Government, and the domestic staff were
provided with passes.^ The regulations for the accommodation
of the exalted prisoner were drawn up with such meticulous-
ness and thoroughness by the various officials * that they
contradicted themselves in many cases, and the officials them-
selves were at variance as to the limits of their powers.
Boveron, a member of the Departmental administration, had
the courage to protest on behalf of the Pope against the
inhumanity of the rulings laid down by his colleagues, and he
refused to put his hand to them.^
Although the prisoner of Valence was guarded with ever-
increasing strictness and the sentries were inspected daily
by the commandant ^ many persons made their way into the
itineris longissimi in quo congesti fuimus " (Papal Secret Archives,
Epist. ad princ, 194, fo. 162). This volume containing the Briefs
written in captivity is marked " Exulante pontifice litterae quae
hoc in volumine continentur non in forma brevis, ut moris est,
sed privatim tantum scriptae atque expeditae fuerunt Josepho
Marotti secretario ".
1 " Oh ! Che bella vista ! " exclaimed the Pope (Gendry,
II., 417)-
" Baldassari, 435 ; Reynaud, 14,
3 Baldassari, 436 ; Poncet, 73.
* The Departement of&cials, for example, produced an order
with t^venty articles (Leclercq, XIII., 100 seqq.) ; these and
other regulations in Poncet, 59 seqq., 67 seqq.
^ Similar protests were made by Curnier, who had been
instructed by the Directory to keep a special watch on the Pope.
Gendry, II., 415 seq. ; Leclercq, XIII. , 104 ; Poncet, 74-82
(Boveron's protest is dealt with on pp. 89-94).
* Poncet, 107.
386 HISTORY OF THE POPES
Pope's apartments and reached his presence without per-
mission. It was evident that the appearance of every visitor
gave him pleasure and he indicated by a sHght movement of
the hand that he was giving him his blessing.^ Boveron came
almost daily and whenever the Pope was strong enough
conversed with him in Itahan. Finally, however, even this
Government representative was refused entry. ^
For the first few days after the Pope's arrival in Valence
his health had improved a httle, probably as the result of the
rest after the long journe}'.^ But soon his physical powers
began to fail again. The physician paid him short visits twice
daily. At Valence the Pope was no longer able to give his
attention to the direction of the Church. The only exception
he made was to deal with the far-reaching desires of the
Spanish Government which the ambassador at last had the
opportunity of putting before him. To some he gave his
approval, others he rejected. He could not be persuaded,
however, to be so complaisant towards Spain as to allow the
Court of Madrid to shoulder almost alone the expense of
maintaining the Papal household at Valence. He said with
heroic firmness : "I cannot sell my soul in order to live a few
days longer." But Labrador, too, was magnanimous enough
to stay with the dying Pope and to see to his physical welfare
and that of his entourage.^ Pius spent each day in prayer
and a little reading ; every morning he heard two Masses
and during the day, if the weather was good, he was taken for
a walk in the garden ; in the evening he gathered all his
companions around him for the saying of the Rosary.^
Soon, however, his condition became critical. He could
hardly take any nourishment and he could no longer be taken
into the open air.^ Nevertheless, on July 22nd, in the hottest
part of the summer, the Directory in Paris was inhuman
1 Leclercq, XIII., io6.
2 Baldassari, 437 ; Pon'CET, io8 seq.
8 Gendry, II., 418.
* Ihid., 439 seqq.
« Gendry, II., 418 ; Poncet, hi.
" PoNCET, 113.
THE pope's condition CRITICAL 387
enough to order his removal to Dijon/ either because the
enemy's forces were steadily approaching or because it was
feared that riots in favour of the former sovereign might
break out in the neighbouring Avignon. On the strength of
a firm protest made by the physician, however,^ counter-
representations were made by the Departmental authorities
and the departure was put off provisionally till August 12th.
Preparations for the departure were begun but the Pope's
condition was so serious that it was found impossible to carry
out the order. The administrator and the commissaries
satisfied themselves of the truth of this by viewing the patient
themselves.^
Meanwhile, on the feast of the Assumption, a slight improve-
ment took place. The Pope again assisted at two Masses and
took Communion. As he was in surprisingly good spirits
afterwards, mention was made of the projected move. He
answered dolefully that he would have liked to spend his last
few hours in Valence but that he resigned himself to the will of
God,* As it happened, on the next day he was worse again,
a comatose stupor denoting that whatever little strength he
had had was now completely exhausted.^
On August 18th, feeling a little better, he left his bed and
tried to pray on an easy chair, but he could no longer collect
his thoughts. In spite of this his improved condition continued
for a while, but on the next night but one he was seized with
fearful convulsions alternating with lethargy.^ Further
medical attention was of no avail ; blood was vomited pain-
lessly, pointing to paralysis of the internal organs. And then,
suddenly, the more his physical strength failed the more his
mental faculties regained their former vigour.' On August 27th
1 Gendry, II., 419 ; Baldassari, 441 ; Leclercq, XIII., 108 ;
Tavanti, III., ^g8 seq. ; Franclieu, 171.
2 His attestation in Leclercq, XIII., iii. Cf. Poncet, 120.
' Baldassari, 449 ; Poncet, 124.
* Gendry, II., 420.
^ Baldassari, 442 seq.
* Gendry, II., 422 ; Poncet, 124.
' Baldassari, 443 seq.
388 HISTORY OF THE POPES
he expressed the firm desire of being clothed in his priestly
vestments and of receiving the Body of the Lord. When
Spina brought the Sacrament into the sick-room the Pope
laid his hand on the Bible and in a clear voice made his solemn
confession of faith. Then, together with Caracciolo, he recited
the Confiteor and the responses.^ On the same day he
instructed Spina to draw up a new will, which he signed. In it
he remembered all his loyal companions who had shared in his
misfortune and rewarded them as well as his slender resources
would permit. Spina was appointed executor. ^
It was now only a question of hours. On the following day
he left his bed again and later on Spina administered the holy
oils to the dying Pope, who was completely clear in his mind
and conscious of what was taking place.^ About midday a
slight alleviation was observed — the last before the final
dissolution. In the evening he again found it difficult to
breathe. Summoning all his strength he pressed the hands of
all the clerics present as if to thank them and to bid them
farewell, and said in a loud voice, " Father, forgive them,"
whereupon Fantini imparted the plenary indulgence to the
dying. All then said the prayers for the dying. At twenty
minutes past one Fantini suddenly stopped, for the Pope,
making a final effort, was raising his right hand. With the
crucifix he gave the triple blessing to those present and with
them, too, the whole ungrateful world from which he was now
departing. His arm dropped listlessly on to the bed and the
crucifix shpped from his grasp. After a few minutes of grievous
agony the face quivered slightly and the physician assured
himself that death had taken place.*
1 Ibid., 445 ; Gendry, II., 422 ; Poncet, 125 seqq.
- Text in Baldassari, 447, and Poncet, 157 (with its shaky
signature). Cf. Leclercq, XIII., 1155^5'., and Franclieu, 213.
» Gendry, II., 423.
« Baldassari, 450 seqq. ; Franclieu, 189 ; Gendry, II., 424 ;
Leclercq, XIII., 117; Poncet, 1305^^.; Tavanti, III..
401 seq. Illustration in Reynaud, 16-17. Cf. *Pedro Labrador
to Azara on August 29, 1799, from Valence : " S.S. conserv6
el uso de su raz6n hasta el ultimo punto de su vida y si durante cUa
THE DEATH OF PIUS VI. 389
It was daybreak on August 29th, 1799. A pontificate of
twenty-four years, six months, and two weeks — the longest
since that of St. Peter ^ — had come to an end. In the sufferings
of his last years Pius VI. had become an heroic follower of
Christ with whom he kept faith unflinchingly and in whose
footsteps he trod as few others had done. And the greatest
and last action performed by this silent sufferer from whom,
as he neared his end, all human frailties fell away like veiling
draperies, was to forgive his enemies and bless the world which
to a large extent had turned against him in revolt and hatred.
On hearing of the Pope's decease the civil officials of Valence
appeared in their robes of office. In the afternoon the death
certificate was made out,^ and thfs was followed by an autopsy
lasting four hours and the embalming of the corpse by Morelli ^
in the presence of the higher officials and the Papal retinue.
The latter operation was performed at Spina's request, that
the mortal remains might be more conveniently conveyed to
the Eternal City.* This was the late Pope's last request, and
Spina immediately applied to the Departmental authorities
for permission to carry it out. The application was forwarded
to Paris. Labrador also wrote to Paris for the same object.^
The Pope's belongings were laid under seal and hsted.^
Caracciolo, as Pronotary, drew up an authenticated record of
the Pope's death and its immediate circumstances,' while
Spina wrote a circular letter to the Cardinals, informing them
fue per su constancia sobrehumana un continue motivo de
admiracion, no se ha mostrado menos portentoso per la inalterable
serenidad con que se ha acercado al sepulcro " (Archives of the
Spanish Embassy in Rome).
1 PoNCET, 133.
- Baldassari, 454 seq. ; Gendry, II., 425.
^ The result of the autopsy in Poncet, 139 seqq.
^ Ibid., 144 ; Baldassari, 455.
5 Gendry, II., 425 seq., 492 ; Baldassari, 465. The text of
Spina's petition in Poncet, 151 seq. (Labrador's letter on p. 153).
* The list in Leclercq, XIII., 119 seqq. ; Poncet, i^^ seqq.
The total value was about 13,000 francs.
' Text in Baldassari, 519 seqq., and Poncet, 147 seqq.
390 HISTORY OF THE POPES
of the sad event.^ Meanwhile the corpse had been clothed in
ecclesiastical vestments and enclosed in a leaden coffin, which
in its turn was placed in one of black walnut. The heart and
entrails were put into a leaden urn.^
These mortal remains were taken to the simple chapel of
the citadel, where the customary nine-days' exequies were
begun on August 30th. The furniture consisted only of four
candlesticks of poor quality and a few leaves of hyssop to
serve as an aspergillum.^ All the more sincere, however, was
the sympathy shown by the local inhabitants, who in spite of
the prohibition and the obstacles placed in their way by the
civil officials, managed to enter the chapel with no assistance
from the clerics.* After the days of mourning were over the
coffin remained in a vaulted chamber immediately beneath the
chapel. Shortly afterwards the lay servants were given their
passports and were discharged, while the clerics stayed behind
to see to the transference of the corpse to Rome.^
A long time passed before there was any prospect of fulfilling
this desire. At the beginning of October General Bonaparte,
when on his way back from the Egyptian expedition, touched
at Valence and in the course of a drive inquired in the most
friendly manner of Spina and his companions what were their
intentions regarding themselves and the late Pope. On hearing
their reply he promised to use his personal influence for them in
Paris. ^ In a few weeks permits to leave the country arrived for
the clerics also, whereupon five of them left Valence on
November 9th, Spina and Monsignore Malo remaining behind.'
Throughout the Catholic world solemn services were held in
honour of the dead Pope.^
It was not until the Directory had been deprived of power
' Gendry, II., 441 seq. ; Baldassari, 465 ; Poncet, 147.
2 Gendry, II., 426. The inscription on the coffin in Poncet, 151.
^ Baldassari, 456.
* Ibid., 457 ; Gendry, II., 428.
'- Baldassari, 458. In Poncet, 163, is the list of all the thirty-
two members of the Papal household.
'^ Baldassari, 466 seqq. ; Poncet, 206 seq.
' Gendry, II., 430. * Ibid., 443 seq. ; Baldassari, 464.
THE FUNERAL AT VALENCE 39I
by Bonaparte's coup d'etat of that same November 9th, the
18th Brumaire, and he himself had been promoted to the
leadership of the country as First Consul, that precise instruc-
tions were issued regarding the disposal of the Pope's body.^
Spina's request, however, was not yet granted ; instead, in
December, an order came from the new Government that the
coffin that had been laid aside in the citadel chapel was to be
buried in Valence as soon as possible, with full military and
pubhc honours, and that a simple but befitting monument was
to be erected to the Pope.^ All the necessary measures were
taken with great promptitude by the competent authorities.
Spina was able to prevent a Constitutional Bishop conducting
the funeral,^ but he had to refrain from taking a personal part
in the ceremony so as not to give his silent consent to a deed
that was directly contrary to his master's last wish.^
On the morning of the appointed day, January 30th, 1800,
the town was aroused by the firing of cannon, and at nine
o'clock the National Guard, in full equipment, paraded in the
square outside the citadel. At ten o'clock the leading municipal,
State, and military officials appeared in full dress with signs of
mourning. After the seals had been inspected and the registra-
tion completed, the imposing procession, accompanying the
coffin on a plain carriage, set out for the graveyard of
St, Catherine, a little over a mile away.^ After military
1 The French Ministry of the Interior feared that if the Pope's
body was taken back to Italy Francophobe disturbances would
break out there. Cf. *Labrador to Urquizo, Paris, October 27,
1799 : (the Minister said) " que no hay otro reparo para permitir
la translacion que el temor de que en los pueblos do Italia por
donde pase, se aumente con este motivo la persecucion contra los
que se mostraron afectos a la Republica francesa. Queda pues
depositado en la capilla de la Ciudadela hasta que varien las
circunstancias " (Archives of the Spanish Embassy in Rome).
2 Gendry, II., 431 ; PoN'CET, 208 seq. ; Franclieu, 221.
' Gendry, II., 433 ; Baldassari, 470 seq.
* PoNCET, 220 seq.
* An illustration of the procession in Reynaud, 18-19; an
account, ibid., ig seq. The whole ceremony in Poncet, 214-18 ;
392 HISTORY OF THE POPES
honours had been paid there the coffin and urn were placed in
a vault while the military band plaj-ed mournful airs. After
further salutes from the guns the procession returned to the
town.i There were no clergy present, no prayers were said,
and no blessing was given.
Spina left the town the next day, but he knew no rest until
the Pope's last wish had been fulfilled.^ It was not till after
Bonaparte had made peace with the Church by the concordat
of 1801 that the requests put to him by Pius VII. were
granted : the mighty Consul gave permission for the remains
of Pius VI. to be transferred to the Eternal City.^ On the
night of Christmas Eve, 1801, in accordance with Government
instructions, the coffin and urn were removed from the vault
in the presence of the local authorities of Valence and a guard
of forty grenadiers. The task occupied nearly all the night ;
the record of the proceedings was signed in the early morning
by Boveron, the acting mayor ; the wording was objected to
by the central authority as not conforming with the prescribed
simplicity.*
\A'hen Spina arrived in Valence to fulfil his last duty towards
his old master, the coffin and urn, which had been kept in
a locked room in the prefecture, were dehvered to him after
the seals and record had been examined.^ Every formahty
having been settled. Spina left again on February 1st, 1802.
The Pope's body had already left Valence on January 11th.
It was taken by carriage to Marseilles, thence by ship to
Genoa, and from there to Lerici.^ From Lerici it went by land
the record of the proceedings, ibid., 231-5 ; ibid., 235 seq., the
funeral expenses.
^ Baldassari, 472 seq.
2 Gendry, II., 447.
' PoNCET, 241 seqq.
* Gendry, II., 448 seq. The text of the record in Poncet,
245-251 ; 7bid., 252-277, the discussions with the Prefecture, which
eventually quashed the report.
5 PoNCET, 270-3.
« Gendry, II., 450. Spina's letters to Consalvi about the
conveyance of the corpse to Italy in Franxlieu, 360 seq.
THE POPE S BODY TAKEN TO ROME 393
via Pisa, Florence, and Siena, to Rome, the greatest respect
being paid to it all along the route.^ Rome was reached on
February 17th, and here a solemn procession, including 400
torch-bearers, accompanied the hearse to St. Peter's, where
Pope Pius VII. and his Cardinals were waiting to receive it.^
On the following night the coffin and urn were opened, the
body was clothed in new vestments, and a new inscription was
affixed to the coffin.^ The next day the solemn exequies were
performed in St. Peter's ; the Requiem was celebrated by
Cardinal Antonelli in the presence of the Pope, the panegyric
was delivered by Gioacchino Tosi, and Pius VII. himself
pronounced the absolution over the catafalque, around
which 600 candles were burning. The coffin was then
exposed in the customary fashion for the veneration of the
faithful.*
The coffin was finally deposited in the Grotte Vaticane, but
it was not till twenty years later, on November 26th, 1822,
that an impressive statue of the sorrowful Pope, a masterpiece
of Canova's, was erected opposite the Confessio of St. Peter.^
Pius VI. is portrayed kneeling with folded hands and bared
head ; his gaze, directed upwards, is full of devotion and
sublimated suffering, of patience, and a trust in God so firmly
rooted that the bitterest misfortune could not rob him
of it.6
The leaden urn containing the Pope's internal organs was
taken back to Southern France in fulfilment of the desire
1 Gendry, II., 451.
- Ibid., 454 seqq.
^ Baldassari, 474, where also the inscription is reproduced.
Cf. Gendry, II., 457.
* Ibid., 458. For particulars about the funeral ceremonies see
the Vatican Archives, " Prelati in carica," Sm., 7th document.
' Ibid., 459, and n. i. Canova died a week before the dedication.
* Illustrations in F. J. Bayer, Papstbuch (Miinchen, 1925),
and Malamani, Canova, 278. Cf. Alberigo Agnoletto, Canova
e I'arte sacra, Rome (n.d.), 10 seq., 34 seq. ; Gregorovius,
Papstgrdber, 94 ; Gendry, I. (frontispiece). Cf. also our account.
Vol. XXXIX., 26 n.
394 HISTORY OF THE POPES
expressed by the Bishop of Valence and backed by Spina.^
Cacault, who was once again the French charge d'affaires in
Rome, acquired for the Bishop a bust of the Pope made in the
studio of one of Canova's pupils, Laboureur. ^ It was Cacault,
too, who arranged for the transference of the precious relics in
the urn, after Pius VII. had acceded to Spina's request in
November 1802,^ On December 29th they were taken with
great solemnity from Rome to Civitavecchia * and thence by
sea to Toulon, which was reached in early January, 1803.
Here they were fetched from the ship by the Archbishop of
Aix in person, attended by the clerg}^ and were escorted by a
vast procession through the town to the principal church,
where for several days on end pontifical Masses and, in the
evening, the office for the dead were celebrated.^ On
March 21st, after the arrival of detailed instructions from the
Government, the reUcs left Toulon for Marseilles, where,
although the holding of religious services in public was still
prohibited, the memory of the Pope was celebrated with full
ceremony in the cathedral, under the leadership of the same
Archbishop.^ On March 26th the urn was exposed all day in
the cathedral at Avignon and on the 29th it reached Valence.
Accompanied by a grand procession headed by the civil
authorities it was conveyed to the cathedral, where it was
taken over by the Bishop.' In thanking those who had
brought the relics from Rome he spoke some words that
fittingly described the change that had taken place during the
' Gendry, it., 459. Cf. Spina to Consalvi, November 6, 1802,
in Theiner, Docttm., II., xxxviii seq.
- Gendry, II., 461 seq. ; Poncet, 285 seqq. ; illustration of the
bust in Reynaud, 22.
' Poncet, 293 seq.
* Gendry, II., 460 seq.
* Ibid., 463. Cf. Archbishop Cice's own account in Theiner,
Docum., II., xl seq.
* Cice's panegyric, delivered at Marseilles, ibid., xli seqq.
' Ibid., xliv seqq., the Archbishop's full account of the journey,
and xhx seqq., the official report of the ceremonies at Valence.
CJ. Gendry, II., 465 seqq.
THE PAPAL RELICS AT VALENCE 395
last few years in the ecclesiastical situation — words which
would have given the greatest joy to Pius VI. " On your
return to Rome, let it be known that in France the Catholic,
Apostolic, and Roman faith is flourishing again, with the
most promising signs for the future." ^
On the following morning, after a solemn service, the urn
was placed provisionally in a side-chapel. Finally, on
October 19th, 1811, the execution of the monument to
Pius VI. had proceeded sufficiently far ^ for the cathedral
chapter to reopen and re-examine the urn, two days after
which it was finally deposited in the monument.^ On
October 25th the consecration of the monument was per-
formed, amid a vast assembly of the faithful, by Spina, who
meanwhile had become Archbishop of Genoa and a Cardinal of
the Roman Church.* This was the last mark of affection he
could show the man with whom he had shared all the sufferings
of exile with loyal devotion. They must have arisen in his
memory with redoubled vividness on that day, twelve years
after the great sufiferer had passed away. For it had taken all
that time for his mortal remains to find their final resting-place.
" The death of Pius VI. has, as it were, placed a seal on the
glory of philosophy in modern times." These words were
used in a malignant obituary article on the great sufferer of
Valence that appeared in a Paris newspaper.^ The times were
such that it was thought possible to deliver funeral orations on
the Papacy and to welcome with joy its permanent dissolution.
The Church's enemies were jubilant that the cockade was
attached to the Papal tiara, that the banners of popular
^ Detailed account in Poncet, 298-305.
* For the continual delays, v. Gendry, IL, 469 seqq.
^ PoNCET, 306 seqq.
* Gendry, IL, 471 {ibid., 472, Gaetano Marini's inscription on
the monument) ; Poncet, 311. The cathedral was raised to the
status of a basilica by Pius IX., who also conferred the pectoral
cross on the chapter {ibid., 313 seq.).
■• Couyyier universel, of September 8, 1799. Cf. Baldassari,
459, 476.
396 HISTORY OF THE POPES
government were waving over the Papal tombs, that the body
of the exiled Pope had been buried in unconsecrated ground.
The capital of Christendom had become the booty of the
Revolution, the highest dignitaries of the Church had been
scattered to the winds.
This then was the doleful end of the intellectual progress of
the century of " enlightenment ". Gallicanism and Jansenism,
Febronianism and Josephism, still concealing their hostility
to the Papacy with fine-sounding words, had gnawed at the
Church's vitals from within, while the spirit of the Encyclo-
pedists and " philosophers " threatened it from without. The
extreme shortsightedness of many princes and diplomats
facilitated rather than hindered the advent of the evil ; they
had no conception that the storm of hatred, once unleashed
among the people, would engulf their thrones along with the
altars, human authority along with the divine. After every-
thing traditional had been destroyed in the flames of the
Revolution it looked as if the last hour had struck for the
Roman Papacy as well.
But the miraculous happened once again. The rock of
Peter rides the storm of every century. The greatest and most
mysterious feature of the history of the Church erf Christ is
that the periods of its deepest humiliation are also those of its
greatest power and unconquerable strength. For the Church,
death and the grave are symbols not of extinction but of
resurrection. The catacombs of early times and the persecu-
tions of the present day are but titles to fame. At the beginning
of the modern era of Papal history the disturbances of the great
schism and the secularization of thought brought forth the
brilliant victory of the Cathohc reformation and restoration.
Between the exile of Avignon and that of Valence there was
the rise and fall of 500 years. But this was not the end : even
the humiliation of 1799 bore within itself the germ of another
display of strength.
All great things are bom in quietness and obscurity. As one
stands on the Piazzetta in Venice and looks across the open
lagoons the eye is held by the gloriously situated church of
S. Giorgio Maggiore, the wonderful, fortress-hke building of
THE ELECTION OF PIUS VII 397
Palladio. This island monastery was chosen by Providence to
be the starting-point of a new era in the history of the Papacy.
Here, welcomed with simple hospitality by the sons of
St. Benedict, on December 1st of that year of misfortune,
1799, thirty-five Cardinals met for the election of a new
representative of Christ. Their unobtrusive action was an
important event in the history of the world.
On March 14th, 1800, Barnaba Chiaramonti, once a
Benedictine of Monte Cassino, left the lonely island of
S. Giorgio as the newly elected Pope Pius VII. He shared with
his unfortunate predecessor not only the same Papal name
and the same native town — for he, too, was born in Cesena —
but also for long periods his bitter fate. Nevertheless, he
succeeded in re-erecting the Holy See in Rome and in
restoring and securing the ecclesiastical organization in
France and Germany. The defenceless successor of the
Galilean fisherman had won a lasting victory over the Terror of
the Revolution and the tyranny of a world-conqueror. For
Christ still walks with Peter on the waves, and for his successors
the words still hold good : " Tu es Petrus, et super hanc
petram aedificaho ecclesiam meam, et portae inferi non
praevalebunt adversus earn."
INDEX OF NAMES IN VOL. XL.
AiGuiLLON, Due d' (French
foreign minister), 112.
Albani, Cardinal Giovanni
Francesco, 71, 314, 317,
323, 368, 370.
Albani, Giuseppe (Auditor-
General of Camera), 310,
313, 328, 359-361. 367-8.
Albert of Sachsen-Teschen
(Stadholder of Nether-
lands), 65.
Alfieri (poet), 215.
Altieri, Cardinal Vincenzo
Maria, 338-9, 358, 369.
Andrea of Gallerani, Blessed,
358.
Antici, Marchese Tommaso
(Bavarian agent at Rome,
later Cardinal), 31, 36, 317,
338-9, 358, 369.
Antonelli, Cardinal Leonardo,
71. 336, 338, 358, 364.
369-370, 376, 393.
Aranda, Count (President of
the Council of Castile),
220 n.
Arena, 231.
Arnoldi (secretary at the Con-
gress of Ems), 45.
Asseburg, von der (Bishop of
Paderborn), 5.
Augereau, General, 349.
Azara, Jose Nicolas de (Spanish
ambassador in Rome and
Paris), 177, 229, 233-4,
246, 290, 292, 295-7, 299-
303, 305-8, 315, 323-4.
327-8, 332-3, 335-6, 345-
6. 364, 366.
Baldassari, 383.
Balore (Bishop of Alais), 92.
Barberi, Cardinal (fiscal), 297,
339-
Barnave, 118, 136, 165, 170,
171, 209.
Barras, 348.
Barthelemy, 348-9.
Bassville, Hugon de, 229-230,
233-240, 243, 293.
Bausset (Bishop of Alais), 126.
Beaumarchais, 108.
Beaumont, Christophe de
(Archbishop of Paris), 4,
90.^
Becdelievre, C. P. de la (Bishop
of Nimes), 91.
Becherel, Fran9ois (Bishop of
Valence), 394.
Beck, Franz Heinrich (ex-
Jesuit), 2, 19, 25, 27.
Beck, Ludwig Joseph (Vicar-
General of Trier), 27, 44,
46-7.
Belle (painter), 214.
Bellisomi, Cardinal Carlo
(nuncio to Cologne and
Lisbon), 1-5, 11, 25, 36, 41.
Bender, General, 75.
Berard (commandant of Brian-
9on), 382.
Berdolet (Constitutional Bishop
of Aix-la-Chapelle), 173.
Bergier (theologian), ion.
Bernard (French agent in
Rome), 217, 219, 231, 233,
242.
Bernis, Cardinal Francois
Joachim de Pierre de
(French envoy in Rome),
88, 90, 119, 145-7, 151-2,
155-6, 161, 176, 183, 214-
17, 246, 248-9, 251, 261,
265, 268.
Berthier, General, 332-4, 339.
Berthier (Jesuit), 104 n.
399
400
INDEX OF NAMES
Besons, A. B. de (Bishop of
Carcassonne), 91.
Blignieres, de (French deputy),
195-
Boisgehn de Cice, J. R. (Arch-
bishop of Aix), gi n., 118-
19, 122, 135, 138, 150, 165,
169, 275.
Boissy d'Anglas, 282.
Bonal (Archbishop of Clermont-
Ferrand), 92, 1 20-1, 136-9,
150, 165, 169.
Bonaparte, Joseph, 325, 329-
331-
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 291, 293,
295-7. 299-301, 306, 314-
16, 318-322, 325, 328-9,
332, 341. 354, 390-2.
Boncompagni, Cardinal Ignazio
(Secretary of State), 68.
Bonicke (consistorial coun-
cillor), 44.
Borgia, Cardinal Stefano, 343.
Botoni (banker), 295.
Bouche (French deputy), 153.
Boveron (deputy Mayor of
Valence), 385-6, 392.
Braschi, Duchess, 363.
Braschi, Duke (Intendant of
Papal household), 259,
295, 318, 322, 332, 355-6,
363. 367-
Breteuil, de (Bishop of Mon-
tauban), 90.
Bridaine, Jacques (preacher),
102 n.
Brienne, Martial de (coadjutor
of Sens), 172 n.
Brissot, 231.
Broglie, Amedee de (Bishop of
Angouleme), 91.
Brunati (Imperial agent in
Rome), 228.
Buckingham, Lord, 273.
Burke, Edmund, 263, 272, 275.
Busca, Cardinal Ignacio (Secre-
tary of State), 306, 315,
323-4-
Bussan (physician), 240.
Bussi, Cardinal Giambattista,
254-
Cacault (French charge
d'affaires in Rome), 243-4,
301-2, 304, 313-15, 320,
325-6, 394-
Cagliostro, 213-14, 216.
Caleppi, Mgr. Lorenzo, 266,
268, 307-8, 318-321.
Cambon, 281.
Campanelli, Cardinal Filippo,
71-
Camus, 118, 136-7, 138, 153,
166, 168.
Canova, Antonio, 343 n., 393.
Capello, Antonio (Venetian en-
voy in Rome), 219, 221-2,
226-7, 241, 247, 252, 254,
256-7.
Caprara, Cardinal Giovanni
(nuncio to Venice), 76-8,
80, 84.
Caprara, General, 230, 241.
Caracciolo (Maestro di Camera),
337. 343. 357. 365. 383.
388-9.
Carnot, 348-9.
Carrier, 202.
Casoni (nuncio in Madrid), 366.
Cazales, 124, 165, 169, 171.
Cervoni, General, 334, 336.
Chabot (ex-Capuchin), 206.
Championnet, Madame, 384 n.
Charles IV (King of Spain), 169,
280, 307, 359 n.
Charterac (Bishop of Alet), 92.
Chasset, 122.
Chaumette, 205, 210.
Chiaramonti, Cardinal Bar-
naba, see Pius VII.
Chinard (French sculptor), 229,
231-3-
Chipault, 372, 376.
Cice, Champion de (Archbishop
of Bordeaux), 143, 149,
153-
Clairfait, General, 253.
Clermont-Tonnerre, A. J.
(Bishop of Ch§,lons-sur-
Marne), 92.
Clootz, Baron Anacharsis, 137,
210.
INDEX OF NAMES
401
Colli, General, 313, 316-19, 328.
Colloredo, Hieronymus, Count
of (Archbishop of Salz-
burg), 33, 43. 65.
Colonna, Prince Filippo, 268.
Compagnoni di Lugo, G., 260 n.
Consalvi, Cardinal, 339.
Conzie, de (Archbishop of
Tours), 103.
Cordier, P., 8 n.
Crispoldi (Papal captain), 343.
Curnier, 384.
Dalberg, Baron Karl Theodor
von, 57.
D'Alembert, 105.
Danton, 191, 197.
Delacroix (French foreign
minister), 304-5.
Despuig (Archbishop of Seville),
358.
Diderot, 105.
Dienseim, 57 n.
Digne (French consul in Rome),
234, 236-7, 242.
Dillon (Archbishop of Nar-
bonne), 160.
Doria, Cardinal, see Pamfili.
Douglass, John (Vicar-
Apostolic of London
District), 274.
Dubourg-Miroadot (Patriarch
of Babylon), 172, 174.
Dubruel (French deputy),
287 n.
Dugnani, Cardinal Antonio
(nuncio in France), 146,
150, 156, 186, 217, 254.
Dulau, Jean Marie (Archbishop
of Aries), Blessed, 103,
138, 198.
Dumouchel, 136 n.
Duphot, General, 330, 346 n.
Dupont (President of French
National Assembly), 153.
Duport-Dutertre, 168.
Duquesnoy, 164.
Durfort, de (Bishop of Besan-
gon), 90, 92.
Duval, Amaury, 239.
Emmerich, Joseph (Elector of
Mainz), 6.
Erskine, Cardinal (Papal repre-
sentative in London), 252,
275, 359 n.
Erthal, Friedrich Karl Joseph
von (Archbishop of Mainz),
6. 33. 37. 39, 56, 58, 65.
Evangelisti, 291, 303, 307.
Expilly (Constitutional Bishop
of Quimper), 163-4, I74-
Eymar, Abbe, 114, 118.
Fantini (Pius VI. 's confessor),
382, 388.
Fauchet (Constitutional Bishop
of Calvados), 192, 194.
Ferdinand IV. (King of Naples)
346.
Ferdinand III. (Grand Duke of
Tuscany), 356, 361, 363-5,
367, 376-7-
Ferdinand Maria (Elector of
Bavaria), 30.
Fernan-Nunez, Countess de,
371 n-
Filangieri, 254.
Flajani (physician), 340.
Fleury, Cardinal, 107.
Fleury, de Rosset de Rocozel
de (Bishop of Chartres), 91.
Fleury, Henri-Bernardin de
(Bishop of Tours and
Cambrai), 91.
Francis II., Emperor, 70, 75,
82, 84, 221, 262, 277, 360,
368.
Frankenberg, Johann Hein-
rich. Count of (Cardinal
Archbishop of Malines),
65-6, 69, 71-2, 353-
Fumel, de (Bishop of Lodeve),
90.
Gagni^res (Jesuit), 198.
Gallerani, Andrea of. Blessed,
358.
Garampi, Cardinal Giuseppe
(nuncio to Vienna), 4, 35.
Dd
402
INDEX OF NAMES
Garrau, 307.
Gay-Vernon (Constitutional
Bishop of Vienne), 194.
Genga, Annibale della (nuncio
at Cologne and Munich,
afterwards Pope Leo XII.),
64.
Genovesi, Antonio, 254.
Gensonne, 19 1-2.
George III., King of Great
Britain, 273, 275.
Gerardi (sculptor), 30 n.
Gerbert, Martin (Abbot of St.
Blasien), 22n., 27.
Gerdil, Cardinal Giacinto Sigis-
mondo, 26, 71, 268, 336.
Gerle, Dom (Carthusian), 123-4.
Gertz, Johann, 8 n.
Gianni, 131 n.
Girard (Papal agent in Lyons),
194.
Gobel (Constitutional Arch-
bishop of Paris) , 126, i36n.,
161, 169, 174-5, 205.
Gonzaga, Cardinal Aloisio
Valenti, 379.
Gouttes, 136 n.
Graves (English envoy in
Rome), 310.
Gregoire, Abbe (Constitutional
Bishop of Loir et Cher),
169-170, 175, 205. 282-3.
Gundi, Marchese, 295.
Gustavus III. (King of
Sweden), 221-2.
Haffelin, Kasimir (Vice-Presi-
dent of Spiritual Council,
Bavaria), 31.
Hallberg, Karl Theodor von,
55 n-
Haller, General, 336, 354.
Hebert, Fran9ois Louis, Blessed
(Eudist martyr), 198.
Hebert (French revolutionary),
210.
Heimes (Suffragan Bishop of
Mainz), 33, 39, 43-4.
Herbain, 4.
Herce (Bishop of Dol), 92.
Hertling, Philipp von, 54.
Herzan und Harras, Cardinal
Count Franz, 39, 60, 68-9,
73, 228.
Hohenlohe-Bartenstein, Prince,
53-
Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus
von (Suffragan Bishop of
Trier), 2-5, 8-14, 17-28.
IsENBiEHL, Johann Lorenz,
6-8.
Isnard, 192.
Jallet, 136 n.
Jarente de la Bruyere, L. S.
(Bishop of Orleans), 163,
172, 174, 209.
Jordan, Camille, 287.
Joseph II., Emperor, 32, 37-8,
47-8, 50, 58, 63, 65-7,
69-73. 75-
Jourdan, General, 253.
Juigne, de (Archbishop of
Paris), 90, 112, 113, 116,
174, 277.
Julien (French deputy), 205.
Karl Ferdinand (Duke of
Brunswick), 227.
Karl Theodor (Elector of
Bavaria), 28-32, 40, 64,
76, 78, 82, 278.
Kaunitz, Prince Wenzel Anton
von (Imperial Chancellor),
50, 67, 72.
Klemens Wenzeslaus (Elector
of Trier), 1-5, 8-13, 17-19,
22-3, 25, 27, 35, 37, 47,
55, 60, 63, 65.
Kobenzl, Count, 368.
Krufft, Andreas Adolf von,
10 n., 21-2, 24.
Laboureur (sculptor), 394.
Labrador, Pedro, 380, 386, 389.
Labrou.sse (prophetess), 225 n.
INDEX OF NAMES
403
La Fare, Anne Louis de (Bishop
of Nancy), 112, 121, 122.
La Flotte, 236-240.
Lally-Tollcndal, Marquis, 112.
La Marche, Jean-Fran9()is de
(Bishop of Saint-Pol-de-
Leon), 273, 275.
La Motte, de (Bishop of
Amiens), 90.
Lancellotti, Cardinal Filippo,
254 n.
Lanjuinais (French deputy),
153, 164, 284.
Larevellierc, 348, 352.
La Roche-xVj-mon, C. A. de
(Archbishop of Narbonne),
103.
La Touche-Treville, Admiral,
226, 231.
La Tour-du-Pin, A. Louis de
(Bishop of Nancy, Arch-
bishop of Auch), 91, 92,
94. 154-
Laujeaq (French deputy), 350.
La vie (French deputy), 164.
Law, John, 107.
Leardi, Paolo, 249.
Le Breton (publisher), 105.
Lebrun, 243.
Le Chapelier, 119.
Lefranc (Eudist), 198.
Lejosne (French deputy), 191.
Leopold IL, Emperor, 75, 80-2,
221.
Lian court, Due de, 112.
Limburg-Stirum, August, Graf
von (Bishop of Speyer),
5, 7. 34. 39, 50. 56.
Lindet, Thomas (Constitutional
Bishop), 203, 205.
Litta (nuncio to Poland), 361-3.
Livizzani, Cardinal Carlo, 378.
Lomenie de Brienne, Cardinal
(Archbishop of Toulouse
and Sens), 99, 163, 172,
174. 177-
Lorenzana, Cardinal Francisco
Antonio (Archbishop of
Toledo), 328, 335, 357,
364-5, 380.
Louis XIV., 107.
Louis XV., 107.
Louis XVI., 108 ff., 143-5,
148 ff., 167-9, 193, 195-6,
201, 217, 244-5, 248.
Louis XVII., the Dauphin,
286 n.
Louis XVIII. (Count of Pro-
vence), 246.
Lucchesini, Marchcsc, 57.
Ludwig, Eugen, Duke of
Wiirttemberg, 1 7 n .
Luzei-ne, de la (Bishop of
Langres), 189.
Machault, Louis Charles de
(Bishop of Amiens), 90,
158.
Mack, General, 346.
Mackau (French envoy in
Naples), 228, 233-4, 236-7,
242.
Maillane, Durand dc, 120, 130.
Malo, Mgr., 390.
Mamachi, Cardinal Tommaso
Maria (Dominican), 3, 23.
Manfredini (Maggiordomo),
356, 364, 367-
Marat, 191.
Mareri, Cardinal Vincenti,
254 n.
Maria I., Queen of Portugal,
221 n. *
Maria Theresa, Empress, 20 n.,
22, 32.
Maria Theresa (wife of Francis
IL), 262.
Marie Adelaide (French
princess), 261.
Marie Antoinette, Queen,
109 n., 203, 249.
]»Iarini, Mgr., 343.
Marolles (Constitutional Bishop
of Soissons), 174.
Marotti, Mgr. (ex- Jesuit), 337,
370, 383-
Martineau, 120, 131-2.
Massena, General, 341, 344-5.
Massieu, 136 n.
Massillon, 91.
D d*
404
INDEX OF NAMES
Massimi, Marchese, 319, 325,
331-
Mattel, Cardinal Alessandro
(Archbishop of Ferrara),
268-270, 314, 318, 322.
Maury, Abbe Jean Slffreln
(Archbishop of Nlcaea,
later Cardinal), 82-4, 118,
125, 166, 171, 220, 244,
250, 254, 265.
Max Emanuel (Elector of
Bavaria), 30.
Max III. Joseph (Elector of
Bavaria), 28.
Maximilian Franz Joseph,
Archduke (Elector of
Cologne), 36-7, 65, 83.
Menageot (director of French
Academy in Rome), 214,
225 n.
Mendizabal (secretary to Azara)
295. 297-8. 300.
Menou, Baron de, 124.
Merck, General, 383 n.
Mercy (Bishop of Lu9on), 120-1
Mercy-Argenteau, Count
(Austrian ambassador in
France), 107.
Merlin (French deputy), 164.
Migazzi, Cardinal Christoph
Anton (Archbishop of
Vienna), 22, 80-1, 84.
Miot (French commissary in
Rome), 301.
Mirabeau, 112, 117, 119, 140,
164-6, 173, 215.
Montesquiou, Abbe, 121, 166.
Montesquiou, Marquis de, 88,
89.
Montmorency, Louis Joseph de
Laval (Bishop of Metz), 92.
Montmorin, Comte (French
foreign minister), 145-6,
184, 186.
Moore, John, 197.
Morelli, 389.
Morette (French banker), 229.
Murray, General, 70.
Nantes, Fran9ois, 195.
Napoleon, see Bonaparte.
Necker (French finance
minister), iii, 116, 120.
Neufville (Bishop of Dax), 92.
Nicolai, Claudius de (Bishop of
Beziers), 90.
Nicolai, Louis-Marie de (Bishop
of Cahors), 91.
Noailles, Vicomte de, iii.
Nos, des (Bishop of Verdun),
90.
Nufiez, Fernan (Spanish envoy
in Paris), 291.
Oberthur (theologian), 9 n.
Odescalchi, Antonio Maria
(Archbishop, nuncio to
Florence), 356-8, 360-1,
367. 376-7-
Osterwald, Peter von, 29.
Pacca, Bartolommeo (nuncio
to Cologne), 41-2, 53-4,
63, 76, 258.
Pamfili, Cardinal Giuseppe
Doria (Secretary of State),
98, 324, 331-2, 333, 336,
358.
Paul I., Tsar, 361-3, 375 n.
Petion (French deputy), 164.
Pey, Canon, ion.
Philippe, Duke of Orleans, 107.
Pieracchi (Auditor in Paris),
303-5-
Pietro, Mgr. di, 370.
Pignatelli, Cardinal Francesco
Maria, 254, 262.
Pinot, Noel, [Blessed] 211.
Pius VII., 348, 392-4, 397-
Polignac, Cardinal Melchior,
95"-
Pompadour, Mme. de, 94 n.,
105.
Pompignan, Georges le Franc
de (Archbishop of Vienne),
96, 143, 145, 149. 153. 158.
Pontard (Constitutional Bishop
of Dordogne), 204.
Pressy, de (Bishop of Boulogne),
90.
Provera, General, 328.
INDEX OF NAMES
405
QuARANTOTTi, Giulio (Auditor),
186-7, 217, 219.
Quevedo (Bishop of Orense),
280.
Quinones (Dominican General),
306.
Radavero, Bartolommeo, 262.
Ratter (French painter), 229,
231-3-
Rautenstrauch (Abbot of
Braunau), 7 n.
Raynal, Abbe, 115.
Reboul de Lambert (Bishop
of Saint-Paul-Trois-Cha-
teaux), 92.
Reinhard (French ambassador
in Florence), 377.
Rewbell (member of the Di-
rector}'), 348.
Rezzonico, Prince Abbondio
(Senator), 241.
Rinuccini, Cardinal Giovanni
(Governor of Rome), 218,
254-
Roberz, Baron, 54.
Robespierre, 136, 191, 210-11,
257-
Roche, Charrier de la (Consti-
tutional Metropolitan of
Rouen), 203.
Rochefoucauld, Cardinal Dom-
inique de la (Archbishop of
Rouen), 91-2, 146, 178,
277.
Rochefoucauld, Due de la, 124.
Rochefoucauld, Blessed Fran-
9ois Joseph de la (Bishop
of Saintes), 92, 198.
Rochefoucauld, Blessed Pierre-
Louis de la (Bishop of
Beauvais), 92, 160, 198.
Rohan Guemenee, Ferdinand
Marie (Archbishop of Cam-
brai), 92.
Rohan Guemenee, Cardinal
Louis Rene de (Bishop of
Strasbourg), 92, 99, 160,
277.
Roland, Madame, 232, 242.
Roverello, Cardinal Aurelio,
254. 358-
Royere (Bishop of Castres), 92.
Ruffo, Cardinal Fabrizio (Teso-
riere), 222, 254-5, 291.
Ruffo, Cardinal Tommaso,
291 n.
Rutan, Marguerite, 211.
Saint-Cyr, General, 363.
Saint-Luc, Cotun de (Bishop of
Quimper), 92 n., 103,
158 n., 160, 164.
Saint-Priest (French envoy in
S}Tia), 168.
Saint-Sauveur, de (Bishop of
Tulle), 90.
Salamon, Abbe (Papal agent in
France), 187-8, 193-5,
199-200.
Salicetti (French commissary),
307-
Salvi, F. S. (Freemason), 254 n.
Savine (Bishop of Viviers), 163,
172, 174.
Schwarzenberg, Prince (Im-
perial envoy), 80.
Seguier (Advocate-General),
105.
Segur, Comte Philippe de, 183-
4, 186-7.
Sergardi, Filippo, 365.
Sicard, Abbe, 198.
Sieyes, Abbe, no, 112, 118.
Soldati (Dominican), 307.
Spina, Mgr. (later Archbishop
of Genoa and Cardinal),
338, 356, 367. 369-370.
375-6, 383, 388-395-
Stay, Benedetto (Secretary of
Briefs), 17.
Stuart, Cardinal, 98.
Suvorov, General, 382.
Swieten, Gerhard van, 28.
Talleyrand, Alexandre An-
gelique de (Archbishop of
Rheims), 92.
Talle^Tand, Charles-Maurice de
(Bishop of Autun), 92, 117,
126, 143, 161, 169, 174, 180.
4o6
INDEX OF NAMES
Tassi (Papal physician), 337.
Tautphoeus (Vicar-General of
Miinster), 44.
Thouret (French deput}^), 119.
Tillet, du (Bishop of Orange),
90, III n.
Tor Ionia (banker), 241.
Torne (Constitutional Bishop of
Cher), 194, 196, 209.
Tosi, Mgr., Gioacchino, 393.
Trautmannsdorff, General, 70-
72.
Treilhard, La Perche, 120-2,
135-6, 140, 169, 174.
Turgot, 109.
Turreau, General, 202.
Valentinelli, 331 n.
Vasto, Marchese, 309-310.
Vaux, Marquise de, 383.
Venturi Gallerani, 365.
Vergniaud (French Minister),
196.
Verri, A., 242 n.
Veynes, Marquise de, 384 n.
Victoire Marie (French prin-
cess), 261.
Vieregg, von (Minister of State,
Munich), 35 n., 40.
Vittorio Amadeo (King of
Savoy), 224.
Vogt, Niklas, 9 n.
Voidel (French deputy), 165-6.
Voltaire, 190.
Weishaupt, Adam, 29.
Welden, Baron Ludwig Joseph
von (Bishop of Freising),
34. 39.
Westfalen, Friedrich Wilhelm
von (Bishop of Hildes-
heim), 5.
Zamboni, Lodovico, 259, 294 n.
Zeil und Trauchberg, Ferdinand
Christoph (Bishop of
Chiemsee), 35.
Zelada, Cardinal Francesco
Saverio (Secretary of
State), 61, 98, 145, 185-9,
194. 230, 233-4, 237, 250,
262, 293, 295, 297, 302,
306.
Ziucci, Conte (internuncio at
Turin), 64.
Zoglio, Cesare (nuncio in
Munich), 32, 40, 41, 54, 64.
Zondadari, Cardinal Antonio
Felice (nuncio in Brussels,
Archbishop of Siena), 67,
73. 356-8, 365, 369.
CONTENTS OF MANN'S LIVES OF THE POPES
Vol. I., Part 1
St. Gregory I., The Great,
590-604.
St. Sabinian, C04-6.
Boniface III., 607.
St. Boniface IV., 608-615.
St. Deusdedit, 615-18.
Boniface V., 619-625.
Honorius I., 625-638.
Severinus, 640.
John IV., 640-2.
Theodore I., 642-g.
St. Martin I., M. 649-654.
St. Eugenius I., 654-7.
Vol. I., Part 2
St. Vitalian, 657-672.
Adeodatus, 672-6.
Donus, 676-8.
St. Agatho, 678-681.
St. Leo II., 682-3.
St. Benedict II., 684-5.
John v., 685-6.
Conon, 686-7.
St. Sergius I., 687-701.
John VI., 701-5.
John VII., 705-7.
Sisinnius, 708.
Constantine, 708-715.
St. Gregory II., 715-731.
St. Gregory III., 731-741.
St. Zachary, 741-752.
Stephen II., 752.
Stephen III., 752-7.
St. Paul I., 757-767.
Stephen III. (IV.), 768-772.
Hadrian I., 772-795.
Vol. II.
St. Leo III., 795-816.
Stephen IV. (V.), 816-17.
St. Paschal I., 817-824.
Eugenius II., 824-7.
Valentine, 827.
Gregory IV., 827-844.
Sergius XL, S44-7.
St. Leo IV., 847-855.
Benedict III., 855-8.
Vol. III.
St. Nicholas I., The Great,
858-867.
Hadrian II., 867-872.
John VIII., 872-882.
Marinus I., 882-4.
St. Hadrian III., 884-5.
Stephen V. (VI.), 885-891.
Vol. IV.
Formosus, 891-6.
Boniface VI., 896.
Stephen VI. (VII.), 896-7.
Romanus, 897.
Theodore II., 897.
John IX., 898-900.
Benedict IV., 900-3.
Leo v., 903.
Christopher, 903-4.
Sergius III., 904-911.
Anastasius III., 911-13.
Landus, 913-14.
John X., 914-18.
Leo VI., 928-9.
Stephen VII. (VIII.), 929-931.
John XL, 931-6.
Leo VII., 936-9.
Stephen VIII. (IX.), 939-942.
Marinus II., 942-6.
Agapitus II., 946-955-
John XII., 955-964.
Benedict V., 964.
John XIII. , 965-972.
Benedict VI., 973-4.
Benedict VII., 974-983.
John XIV., 983-4.
Boniface VII., 974 ; 984-6,
(Anti-Pope).
John XV., 985-996.
Gregory V., 996-9.
407
4o8
CONTENTS OF MANN S LIVES
Vol. V.
Sylvester II., 999-1003.
John XVII., 1003.
John XVIII., 1003-9.
Sergius IV., 1009-1012.
Benedict VIII., 1012-1024.
John XIX., 1024-1032.
Benedict IX., 1032-1045.
Gregory VI., 1045-6.
Clement II., 1046-7.
Damasus II., 1048.
Vol. VI.
St. Leo IX., 1049-1054.
Victor II., 1055-7.
Stephen IX. (X.), 1057-8.
Nicholas II., 1059-1061.
Alexander II., 1061-1073.
• Vol. VII.
St. Gregory VII., 1073-1085.
Blessed Victor III., 1086-7.
Blessed Urban II., 1 088-1 099.
Vol. VIII.
Paschal II., 1099-1118.
Gelasius II., 11 18-19.
Calixtus II., 1119-1124.
Honorius II., 1 124-1130.
Vol. IX.
Innocent II., 1130-1143.
Celestine II., 1 143-4.
Lucius II., 1 144-5.
Blessed Eugenius III.,
1145-1153.
Anastasius IV., 1 153-4.
Hadrian IV., 1 154-9.
Vol. X.
Alexander III., 1 159-11 81.
Lucius III., 1181-5.
Urban III., 1185-7.
Gregory VIII., 1187.
Clement III., 1187-1191.
Celestine III., 1191-8.
Vol. XI.
Innocent III., 1198-1216.
Vol. XII.
Innocent III. {contivned).
Vol. XIII.
Honorius III., 1216-1227.
Gregory IX., 1227-1241.
Celestine IV., 1241.
Vol. XIV.
Innocent IV., 1243-1254.
Vol. XV.
Alexander IV., 1254-1261.
Urban IV., 1261-4.
Clement IV., 1265-8.
Blessed Gregory X., 1271-6.
Vol. XVI.
Blessed Innocent V., 1276.
Hadrian V., 1276.
John XXI, 1276-7.
Nicholas III., 1277-1280.
Martin IV., 1281-5.
Honorius IV., 1285-7.
Vol. XVII.
Nicholas IV., 1288-1292.
St. Celestine V., 1294.
Vol. XVIII.
Boniface VIII., 1294-1303.
Blessed Benedict XL, 1303-4.
CONTENTS OF PASTOR'S HISTORY OF THE POPES
Vol. I.
Clement V., 1305-1314.
John XXII., 1316-1334.
Benedict XII., 1334-1342.
Clement VI., 1 342-1 352.
Innocent VI., 1352-1362.
Blessed Urban V., 1362-1370.
Gregory XL, 1370-8.
Urban VI., 1378-1389.
Boniface IX., 1 389-1 404.
Innocent VII., 1404-6.
Gregory XII., 1406-1415.
Martin V., 141 7-143 1.
Eugenius IV., 1431-1447.
Vol. II.
Nicholas V., 1447-1455.
Calixtus III., 1455-8.
Vol. III.
Pius II., 1458-1464.
Vol. IV.
Paul II., 1464-1471.
Sixtus IV., 1471-1484.
Vol. V.
Innocent VIII., 1484-1492.
Alexander VII., 1492-1503.
Vol. VI.
Alexander VI. [continued).
Pius III., 1503.
Julius II., 1503-1513.
Vol. VII.
Leo X., 1513-1521.
Vol. VIII.
Leo X. (continued).
Vol. IX.
Adrian VI., 1522-3.
Clement VII., 1523-1534.
Vol. X.
Clement VII [continued).
Vol. XI.
Paul III., 1534-1549.
Vol. XII.
Paul III. [continued).
Vol. XIII.
Julius III., 1550-5.
Vol. XIV.
Marcellus II., 1555.
Paul IV., 1555-9.
Vol. XV.
Pius IV., 1559-1565-
Vol. XVI.
Pius IV. [continued).
Vol. XVII.
St. Pius v., 1566-1572.
Vol. XVIII.
St. Pius V. [continued).
Vol. XIX.
Gregory XIII, 1572-1585.
Vol. XX.
Gregory XIII [continued).
Vol. XXI.
Sixtus v., 1 585-1 590.
Vol. XXII.
Sixtus V. [continued).
Urban VII., 1590.
Gregory XIV., 1 590-1.
Innocent IX., 1591.
Vol. XXIII.
Clement VIII., 1592-1605.
409
410
CONTENTS OF PASTOR S HISTORY
Vol. XXIV.
Clement VIII. [continued).
Vol. XXV.
Leo XI, 1605.
Paul v., 1605-1621.
Vol. XXVI.
Paul V. [continued).
Vol. XXVII.
Gregory XV., 162 1-3.
Urban VIII., 1623-1644.
Vol. XXVIII.
Urban VIII. [continued).
Vol. XXIX.
Urban VIII. [continued).
Vol. XXX.
Innocent X., 1644-1655.
Vol. XXXI.
Alexander VII., 1655-1667.
Clement IX., 1667-9.
Clement X., 1670-6.
Vol. XXXII.
Ven. Innocent XI., 1 676-1 689.
Alexander VIII., 1689-1691.
Innocent XII., 1 691 -1700.
Vol. XXXIII.
Clement XI., 1 700-1 721.
Vol. XXXIV.
Innocent XIII., 1721-4.
Benedict XIII., 1724-1730.
Clement XII., 1730-1740.
Vol. XXXV.
Benedict XIV., 1 740-1 758.
Vol. XXXVI.
Benedict XIV. [continued).
Clement XIII., 1758-1769.
Vol. XXXVII.
Clement XIII. [continued).
Vol. XXXVIII.
Clement XIV., 1 769-1 774.
Vol. XXXIX.
Pius VI., 1775-1799.
Vol. XL.
Pius VI. [continued).
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